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2010-11-03T00:20:00.000-07:00

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2010-11-03T00:18:00.000-07:00

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2010-11-03T00:16:00.000-07:00

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2010-11-03T00:01:00.000-07:00

2010-06-12T17:28:00.000-07:00

A Big Problem With a Natural Solution
Do you lie awake at night tossing and turning? Do you count sheep until you’re so tired of seeing sheep you wish you never saw another sheep?

Do you have insomnia?

Perhaps you’re always tired. Always feel like you need a good few hours sleep, but can’t get it.

Maybe your relationship is suffering because your tossing and turning all night disturbs your partner. Maybe you’re grumpy when you’re tired and your partner has had enough of your bad moods.

Insomnia can be a huge problem. And if you have it it’s probably a huge problem for you right now. Maybe it’s causing you some physical or mental health problems for example.

Everyone has the odd night when they spend some time awake. Maybe there is something on your mind, something to worry about. Perhaps you took a nap in the afternoon and you can’t sleep as well at night now.

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japan

2009-11-07T03:57:00.001-08:00

History of Japan
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
History of Japan
Satsuma-samurai-during-boshin-war-period.jpg

* Paleolithic 35000–14000 BC
* Jōmon period 14000–400 BC
* Yayoi period 400 BC–250 AD
* Kofun period 250–538
* Asuka period 538–710
* Nara period 710–794
* Heian period 794–1185
* Kamakura period
1185–1333
o Kenmu restoration
1333–1336
* Muromachi period (Ashikaga)
1336–1573
o Nanboku-chō period
1336-1392
o Sengoku period
1467-1573
* Azuchi–Momoyama period
1568–1603
o Nanban trade
* Edo period (Tokugawa)
1603–1868
o Bakumatsu
* Meiji period 1868–1912
o Meiji Restoration
* Taishō period 1912–1926
o Japan in World War I
* Shōwa period 1926–1989
o Japanese militarism
o Occupation of Japan
o Post-Occupation Japan
* Heisei period 1989–present

* Empire of Japan
Political Entity (1868-1945)
* Economic history
* Educational history
* Military history
* Naval history
* Seismological history

Glossary
This box: view • talk • edit

The written history of Japan begins with brief information of Twenty-Four Histories, a collection of Chinese historical texts, in the 1st century AD. However, there is evidence that suggests people were living on the islands of Japan since the upper paleolithic period.[1] Following the last ice-age, around 12,000 BC, the rich ecosystem of the Japanese Archipelago fostered human development. The earliest-known pottery belongs to the Jōmon period.
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Japanese pre-history
o 1.1 Paleolithic Age
o 1.2 Jōmon period
o 1.3 Yayoi period
* 2 Ancient and Classical Japan
o 2.1 Kofun period
o 2.2 Asuka period
o 2.3 Nara period
o 2.4 Heian period
* 3 Feudal Japan (12th - 19th century)
o 3.1 Kamakura period
o 3.2 Muromachi period
o 3.3 Azuchi-Momoyama period
o 3.4 Edo period (1603 - 1868)
+ 3.4.1 Seclusion
+ 3.4.2 End of seclusion
* 4 Meiji Restoration
o 4.1 Wars with China and Russia
o 4.2 Anglo-Japanese Alliance
* 5 Taishō and Shōwa eras
o 5.1 Militarism
o 5.2 Second Sino-Japanese war and World War II
* 6 Occupied Japan
* 7 Post-Occupation Japan 1952-1990
* 8 Political and economic reform since 1990s
* 9 Today
* 10 Periodization
* 11 Japanese era names
* 12 See also
* 13 References
* 14 External links

[edit] Japanese pre-history
[edit] Paleolithic Age
Polished stone axes, excavated at Hinatabayashi B site, Shinano city, Nagano. Pre-Jōmon (Paleolithic) period, 30,000 BC. Tokyo National Museum.
Main article: Japanese Paleolithic

The Japanese Paleolithic age covers a period starting from around 100,000 to 30,000 BC, when the earliest stone tool implements have been found, and ending around 12,000 BC, at the end of the last ice age, corresponding with the beginning of the Mesolithic Jōmon period. A start date of around 35,000 BC is most generally accepted.[2] The Japanese archipelago was disconnected from the continent after the last ice age, around 11,000 BC. After a hoax by an amateur researcher, Shinichi Fujimura, had been exposed[3], the Lower and Middle Paleolithic evidence reported by Fujimura and his associates has been rejected after thorough reinvestigation. Only some Upper Paleolithic evidence not associated with Fujimura can be considered well established.[citation needed]
[edit] Jōmon period
Main article: Jōmon period
A Middle Jōmon vessel (3000-2000 BC).

The Jōmon period lasted from about 14,000 BC to 300 BC. The first signs of civilization and stable living patterns appeared around 14,000 BC with the Jōmon culture, characterized by a Mesolithic to Neolithic semi-sedentary hunter-gatherer lifestyle of wood stilt house and pit dwelling and a rudimentary form of agriculture. Weaving was still unknown and clothes were often made of fur. The Jōmon people started to make clay vessels, decorated with patterns made by impressing the wet clay with braided or unbraided cord and sticks. Some of the oldest surviving examples of pottery in the world may be found in Japan, based on radio-carbon dating, along with daggers, jade, combs made of shells, and other household items dated to the 11th millennium BC,[4] although the specific dating is disputed. Clay figures known as dogū were also excavated. The household items suggest trade routes existed with places as far away as Okinawa[citation needed]. DNA analysis suggests that the Ainu, an indigenous people that live in Hokkaidō and the northern part of Honshū are descended from the Jōmon and thus represent descendants of the first inhabitants of Japan[citation needed].
[edit] Yayoi period
Main article: Yayoi period
A Yayoi period Dōtaku, 3rd century AD.

The Yayoi period lasted from about 400 or 300 BC to 250 AD. It is named after Yayoi town, the subsection of Bunkyō, Tokyo where archaeological investigations uncovered its first recognized traces.

The start of the Yayoi period marked the influx of new practices such as weaving, rice farming, shamanism[citation needed] and iron and bronze-making[5] brought from Korea or China.[6] For example, some paleoethnobotany studies show that wet-rice cultivation began about 8000 BC in the Yangtze River Delta and spread to Japan about 1000 BC.[7]

Japan first appeared in written records in AD 57 with the following mention in China's Book of the Later Han:[8] Across the ocean from Lelang are the people of Wa. Formed from more than one hundred tribes, they come and pay tribute frequently. The Sanguo Zhi written in the 3rd century noted the country was the unification of some 30 small tribes or states and ruled by a shaman queen named Himiko of Yamataikoku.

During the Han Dynasty and Wei Dynasty, Chinese travelers to Kyūshū recorded its inhabitants and claimed that they were the descendants of the Grand Count (Tàibó) of the Wu. The inhabitants also show traits of the pre-sinicized Wu people with tattooing, teeth-pulling and baby-carrying. The Sanguo Zhi records the physical descriptions which are similar to ones on Haniwa statues, such men with braided hair, tattooing and women wearing large, single-piece clothing.

The Yoshinogari site is the most famous archaeological site in the Yayoi period and reveals a large, continuously inhabited settlement in Kyūshū for several hundreds of years. Excavation has shown the most ancient parts to be around 400 BC. Among the artifacts are Chinese mirrors and bronze objects, including those from China via Korean Peninsula .[9][10] It appears the inhabitants had frequent communication with the mainland and trade relations. Today some reconstructed buildings stand in the park on the archaeological site.
[edit] Ancient and Classical Japan
[edit] Kofun period
Iron helmet and armor with gilt bronze decoration, Kofun period, 5th century. Tokyo National Museum.
Main article: Kofun period

The Kofun period, beginning around AD 250, is named after the large tumulus burial mounds (kofun) that appeared at the time. The Kofun period saw the establishment of strong military states centered around powerful clans, and the establishment of the dominant Yamato polity centered in the Yamato and Kawachi provinces, from the 3rd century to the 7th century, origin of the Japanese imperial lineage. The polity, suppressing the clans and acquiring agricultural lands, maintained a strong influence in the western part of Japan. Japan started to send tributes to Imperial China in the 5th century. In the Chinese history records, the polity was called Wa and its five kings were recorded. Based upon the Chinese model, they developed a central administration and an imperial court system and its society was organized into occupation groups.

Close relationships between the Three Kingdoms of Korea and Japan began during the middle of this period, around the end of the 4th century.
[edit] Asuka period
Mural painting on the wall of the Takamatsuzuka Tomb, Asuka, Nara, 8th century
Main article: Asuka period

The Asuka period, 538 to 710, is when the proto-Japanese Yamato polity gradually became a clearly centralized state, defining and applying a code of governing laws, such as the Taika Reform and Taihō Code.[11] The introduction of Buddhism led to the discontinuing of the practice of large kofun.

Buddhism was introduced to Japan in 538 by Baekje, to which Japan provided military support,[12] and it was promoted by the ruling class. Prince Shōtoku devoted his efforts to the spread of Buddhism and Chinese culture in Japan. He is credited with bringing relative peace to Japan through the proclamation of the Seventeen-article constitution, a Confucian style document that focused on the kinds of morals and virtues that were to be expected of government officials and the emperor's subjects.

A letter brought to the Emperor of China by an emissary from Japan in 607 stated that the Emperor of the Land where the Sun rises (Japan) sends a letter to the Emperor of the land where Sun sets (China),[13] thereby implying an equal footing with China which angered the Chinese emperor.[14]

Starting with the Taika Reform Edicts of 645, Japanese intensified the adoption of Chinese cultural practices and reorganized the government and the penal code in accordance with the Chinese administrative structure (Ritsuryō) of the time. This paved the way for the influential Confucian philosophy in Japan until the 19th century.[citation needed] This period also saw the first uses of the word Nihon (日本) as a name for the emerging state.
[edit] Nara period
The Great Buddha at Nara, 752 AD.
Main article: Nara period

The Nara period of the 8th century marked the first emergence of a strong Japanese state. Following an Imperial rescript by Empress Gemmei the move of the capital to Heijō-kyō, present-day Nara, took place in 710. The city was modeled on the capital of the Chinese Tang Dynasty, Chang'an (now Xi'an).

During the Nara Period, political development was quite limited, since members of the imperial family struggled for power with the Buddhist clergy as well as the regents, the Fujiwara clan. Japan did enjoy friendly relations with Silla as well as formal relationships with Tang China. In 784, the capital was moved again to Nagaoka to escape the Buddhist priests and then in 794 to Heian-kyo, present-day Kyoto.

Historical writing in Japan culminated in the early 8th century with the massive chronicles, the Kojiki (The Record of Ancient Matters, 712) and the Nihon Shoki (Chronicles of Japan, 720). These chronicles give a legendary account of Japan's beginnings, today known as the Japanese mythology. According to the myths contained in these 2 chronicles, Japan was founded in 660 BC by the ancestral Emperor Jimmu, a direct descendant of the Shinto deity Amaterasu, or the Sun Goddess. The myths recorded that Jimmu started a line of emperors that remains to this day. Historians assume the myths partly describe historical facts but the first emperor who actually existed was Emperor Ōjin, though the date of his reign is uncertain. Since the Nara period, actual political power has not been in the hands of the emperor, but in the hands of the court nobility, the shoguns, the military and, more recently, the prime minister.
[edit] Heian period
Main article: Heian period
A handscroll painting dated circa 1130, illustrating a scene from the "Bamboo River" chapter of the Tale of Genji.

The Heian period, lasting from 794 to 1185, is the final period of classical Japanese history. It is considered the peak of the Japanese imperial court and noted for its art, especially in poetry and literature. In the early 11th century, Lady Murasaki wrote Japan's, and one of the world's, oldest surviving novel, The Tale of Genji. The Man'yōshū and Kokin Wakashū, the oldest existing collections of Japanese poetry, were compiled in the period.

Strong differences from mainland Asian cultures emerged (such as an indigenous writing system, the kana). Chinese influence had reached its peak, and then effectively ended with the last Imperial-sanctioned mission to Tang China in 838, due to the decline of the Tang Dynasty, although trade expeditions and Buddhist pilgrimages to China continued.[15]

Political power in the Imperial court was in the hands of powerful aristocratic families, especially the Fujiwara clan, who ruled under the titles Sesshō and Kampaku (regents).

The end of the period saw the rise of various military clans. The four most powerful clans were the Minamoto clan, the Taira clan, the Fujiwara clan, and the Tachibana clan. Towards the end of the 12th century, conflicts between these clans turned into civil war, such as the Hōgen and Heiji Rebellions, followed by the Genpei War, from which emerged a society led by samurai clans, under the political rule of the shogun.
[edit] Feudal Japan (12th - 19th century)

The "feudal" period of Japanese history, dominated by the powerful regional families (daimyo) and the military rule of warlords (shogun), stretched from the 12th through the 19th centuries. The Emperor remained but was mostly kept to a de jure figurehead ruling position. This time is usually divided into periods following the reigning family of the shogun.
[edit] Kamakura period
Main article: Kamakura period

The Kamakura period, 1185 to 1333, is a period that marks the governance of the Kamakura shogunate and the transition to the Japanese "medieval" era, a nearly 700-year period in which the emperor, the court, and the traditional central government were left intact but were largely relegated to ceremonial functions. Civil, military, and judicial matters were controlled by the bushi (samurai) class, the most powerful of whom was the de facto national ruler, the shogun. This period in Japan differed from the old shōen system in its pervasive military emphasis.

In 1185, Minamoto no Yoritomo defeated the rival Taira clan, and in 1192, Yoritomo was appointed Seii Tai-Shogun by the emperor; he established a base of power in Kamakura. Yoritomo ruled as the first in a line of Kamakura shoguns. However, after Yoritomo's death, another warrior clan, the Hōjō, came to rule as regents for the shoguns.
Japanese samurai boarding Mongol ships in 1281.

A traumatic event of the period was the Mongol invasions of Japan between 1272 and 1281, in which massive Mongol forces with superior naval technology and weaponry attempted a full-scale invasion of the Japanese islands. A famous typhoon referred to as kamikaze, translating as divine wind in Japanese, is credited with devastating both Mongol invasion forces, although some scholars[who?] assert that the defensive measures the Japanese built on the island of Kyūshū may have been adequate to repel the invaders. Although the Japanese were successful in stopping the Mongols, the invasion attempt had devastating domestic repercussions, leading to the extinction of the Kamakura shogunate.

The Kamakura period ended in 1333 with the destruction of the shogunate and the short reestablishment of imperial rule (the Kenmu restoration) under the Emperor Go-Daigo by Ashikaga Takauji, Nitta Yoshisada, and Kusunoki Masashige.

Thus, the "Japanese Middle Ages", which also include the Muromachi period and lasted until the Meiji Restoration, started with the Kamakura period.
[edit] Muromachi period
Main article: Muromachi period

The Muromachi period is a division of Japanese history running from approximately 1336 to 1573. The period marks the governance of the Ashikaga shogunate, also called Muromachi shogunate, which was officially established in 1336 by the first Muromachi shogun Ashikaga Takauji, who seized political power from Emperor Go-Daigo, ending the Kemmu restoration. The period ended in 1573 when the 15th and last shogun Ashikaga Yoshiaki was driven out of the capital in Kyoto by Oda Nobunaga.

The early years of 1336 to 1392 of the Muromachi period is also known as the Nanboku-chō or Northern and Southern Court period, as the Imperial court was split in two.

The later years of 1467 to the end of the Muromachi period is also known as the Sengoku period, the "Warring States period", a time of intense internal warfare, and corresponds with the period of the first contacts with the West, with the arrival of Portuguese "Nanban" traders.
See also: Nanban trade and Sengoku period
A group of Portuguese Nanban foreigners, including the missionary Francis Xavier 17th century, Japan.

In 1543, a Portuguese ship, blown off its course to China, landed on Tanegashima Island Japan. Firearms introduced by Portuguese would bring the major innovation to Sengoku period culminating in the Battle of Nagashino where reportedly 3,000 arquebuses (the actual number is believed to be around 2,000) cut down charging ranks of samurai. During the following years, traders from Portugal, the Netherlands, England, and Spain arrived, as did Jesuit, Dominican, and Franciscan missionaries.

See also: Kirishitan

[edit] Azuchi-Momoyama period
Main article: Azuchi-Momoyama period

The Azuchi-Momoyama period runs from approximately 1568 to 1600. The period marks the military reunification and stabilization of the country under a single political ruler, first by the campaigns of Oda Nobunaga who almost united Japan, achieved later by one of his generals, Toyotomi Hideyoshi. The name Azuchi-Momoyama comes from the names of their respective castles, Azuchi Castle and Momoyama castle.

After having united Japan, Hideyoshi invaded Korea in an attempt to conquer Korea, China, and even India. However, after two unsuccessful campaigns toward the allied forces of Korea and China and his death, his forces retreated from the Korean peninsula in 1598.

The short period of succession conflict to Hideyoshi was ended when Tokugawa Ieyasu, one of the regents for Hideyoshi's young heir, emerged victorious at the Battle of Sekigahara and seized political power.
[edit] Edo period (1603 - 1868)
Main article: Edo period
Stone foundation of the main tower at Edo Castle.

During the Edo period, also called the premodern era, the administration of the country was shared by over two hundred daimyo. The Tokugawa clan, leader of the victorious eastern army in the Battle of Sekigahara, was the most powerful of them, and for fifteen generations monopolized the title of Sei-i Taishōgun (often shortened to shōgun). With their headquarters at Edo (present-day Tokyo), the Tokugawa commanded the allegiance of the other daimyo, who in turn ruled their domains with a rather high degree of autonomy.

The shogunate carried out a number of significant policies. They placed the samurai class above the commoners: the agriculturists, artisans, and merchants. They enacted sumptuary laws limiting hair style, dress, and accessories. They organized commoners into groups of five, and held all responsible for the acts of each individual. To prevent daimyo from rebelling, the shoguns required them to maintain lavish residences in Edo and live at these residences on a rotating schedule; carry out expensive processions to and from their domains; contribute to the upkeep of shrines, temples, and roads; and seek permission before repairing their castles.
A 1634 Japanese Red seal ship, during the Edo period.

Many artistic developments took place during the Edo Period. Most significant among them were the ukiyo-e form of wood-block print, and the kabuki and bunraku theaters. Also, many of the most famous works for the koto and shakuhachi date from this time period.

Throughout the Edo Period, the development of commerce, the rise of the cities, and the pressure from foreign countries changed the environment in which the shoguns and daimyo ruled. In 1868, following the Boshin War, the shogunate collapsed, and a new government coalesced around the Emperor.
[edit] Seclusion
The following text needs to be harmonized with text in Sakoku.
Main article: Sakoku
Japan's first treatise on Western anatomy, published in 1774, an example of Rangaku.

During the early part of the 17th century, the shogunate suspected that the traders and missionaries were actually forerunners of a military conquest by European powers. Christianity spread in Japan, especially among peasants. The shogunate suspected the loyalty of Christian peasants towards their daimyos and severely persecuted them. This led to a revolt by persecuted peasants and Christians in 1637 known as the Shimabara Rebellion which saw 30,000 Christians, samurai, and peasants facing a massive samurai army of more than 100,000 sent from Edo. The rebellion was crushed at a high cost to the shogun's army. After the eradication of the rebels at Shimabara, the shogunate placed foreigners under progressively tighter restrictions. It monopolized foreign policy, and expelled traders, missionaries, and foreigners, with the exception of the Dutch and Chinese merchants restricted to the man-made island of Dejima in Nagasaki Bay and several small trading outposts outside the country. However, during this period of isolation (Sakoku) that began in 1635, Japan was much less cut off from the rest of the world than is commonly assumed, and some acquisition of western knowledge occurred under the Rangaku system.

Russian encroachments from the north led the shogunate to extend direct rule to Hokkaidō, Sakhalin and the Kuriles in 1807, but the policy of exclusion continued.
[edit] End of seclusion
Main article: Bakumatsu
Landing of Commodore Perry, officers & men of the squadron, to meet the Imperial commissioners at Yoku-Hama (Yokohama?) July 14 1853. Lithograph by Sarony & Co., 1855, after W. Heine.

The policy of isolation lasted for more than 200 years. In 1844, William II of the Netherlands sent a message urging Japan to open her doors, which resulted in Tokugawa shogunate's rejection.[16] On July 8, 1853, Commodore Matthew Perry of the U.S. Navy with four warships — the Mississippi, Plymouth, Saratoga, and Susquehanna — steamed into the bay at Edo, old Tokyo, and displayed the threatening power of his ships' cannons during a Christian burial, which the Japanese observed. He requested that Japan open to trade with the West. These ships became known as the kurofune, the Black Ships.

The following year, at the Convention of Kanagawa on March 31, 1854, Perry returned with seven ships and requested that the Shogun sign the "Treaty of Peace and Amity," establishing formal diplomatic relations between Japan and the United States. Within five years Japan had signed similar treaties with other western countries. The Harris Treaty was signed with the United States on July 29, 1858. These treaties were widely regarded by Japanese intellectuals as unequal, having been forced on Japan through gunboat diplomacy, and as a sign of the West's desire to incorporate Japan into the imperialism that had been taking hold of the rest of the Asian continent. Among other measures, they gave the Western nations unequivocal control of tariffs on imports and the right of extraterritoriality to all their visiting nationals. They would remain a sticking point in Japan's relations with the West up to the turn of the century.
[edit] Meiji Restoration
Samurai of the Satsuma clan, during the Boshin War period. Photograph by Felice Beato
Main article: Meiji Restoration
Main article: Meiji period

Renewed contact with the West precipitated profound alteration of Japanese society. The shogun resigned and soon after the Boshin War of 1868, the emperor was restored to power. The subsequent "Meiji Restoration" initiated many reforms. The feudal system was abolished, the military was modernized, and numerous Western institutions were adopted, including a Western legal system and a quasi-parliamentary constitutional government, outlined in the Meiji Constitution, modeled on the constitutions of Germany, France, and the United States. While many aspects of the Meiji Restoration were adopted directly from Western institutions, others, such as the dissolution of the feudal system and removal of the shogunate, were processes that had begun long before the arrival of Perry.

"...the seed is sown, and Japan will move, upon the whole, in the direction of progress." Andrew Carnegie, Round the World (1878)

Russian pressure from the north appeared again after Muraviev had gained Outer Manchuria at Aigun (1858) and Peking (1860). This led to heavy Russian pressure on Sakhalin which the Japanese eventually yielded in exchange for the Kuril islands (1875). The Ryukyu Islands were similarly secured in 1879, establishing the borders within which Japan would "enter the World". In 1898, the last of the unequal treaties with Western powers was removed, signalling Japan's new status among the nations of the world. In a few decades, by reforming and modernizing social, educational, economic, military, political and industrial systems, the Emperor Meiji's "controlled revolution" had transformed a feudal and isolated state into a world power.
[edit] Wars with China and Russia
Main article: Foreign relations of Meiji Japan

Japanese intellectuals of the late-Meiji period espoused the concept of a "line of advantage," an idea that would help to justify Japanese foreign policy at the turn of the century. According to this principle, embodied in the slogan fukoku kyōhei, Japan would be vulnerable to aggressive Western imperialism unless it extended a line of advantage beyond its borders which would help to repel foreign incursions and strengthen the Japanese economy. Emphasis was especially placed on Japan's "preeminent interests" in the Korean Peninsula, once famously described as a "dagger pointed at the heart of Japan." It was tensions over Korea and Manchuria, respectively, that led Japan to become involved in the first Sino-Japanese War with China in 1894-1895 and the Russo-Japanese War with Russia in 1904-1905.

The war with China made Japan the world's first Eastern, modern imperial power, and the war with Russia proved that a Western power could be defeated by an Eastern state. The aftermath of these two wars left Japan the dominant power in the Far East, with a sphere of influence extending over southern Manchuria and Korea, which was formally annexed as part of the Japanese Empire in 1910. Japan had also gained half of Sakhalin Island from Russia.

For Japan and for the moment, it established the country's dominant interest in Korea, while giving it the Pescadores Islands, Formosa (now Taiwan), and the Liaodong Peninsula in Manchuria, which was eventually retroceded in the "humiliating" Triple Intervention. Over the next decade, Japan would flaunt its growing prowess, including a very significant contribution to the Eight-Nation Alliance, formed to quell China's Boxer Rebellion. Many Japanese, however, believed their new empire was still regarded as inferior by the Western powers, and they sought a means of cementing their international standing. This set the climate for growing tensions with Russia, who would continually intrude into Japan's "line of advantage" during this time.
[edit] Anglo-Japanese Alliance
Main article: Anglo-Japanese Alliance

The Anglo Japanese Alliance treaty was signed between the United Kingdom and Japan on January 30, 1902, and announced on February 12, 1902. It was renewed in 1905 and 1911 before its demise in 1921 and its termination in 1923. It was a military alliance between the two countries that threatened Russia and Germany. Due to this alliance, Japan entered World War I on the side of Great Britain. Japan attacked German bases in China and sent troops to the Mediterranean in 1917. Through this treaty, there was also great cultural exchange between the two countries.
[edit] Taishō and Shōwa eras
Early Modern Japan, Marunouchi, Tokyo 1920

In a manner perhaps reminiscent of its participation in quelling the Boxer Rebellion at the turn of the century, Japan entered World War I and declared war on the Central Powers. Though Japan's role in World War I was limited largely to attacking German colonial outposts in East Asia, it took advantage of the opportunity to expand its influence in Asia and its territorial holdings in the Pacific. Acting virtually independently of the civil government, the Japanese navy seized Germany's Micronesian colonies. It also attacked and occupied the German coaling port of Qingdao in the Chinese Shandong peninsula.

The post-war era brought Japan unprecedented prosperity.

Japan went to the peace conference at Versailles in 1919 as one of the great military and industrial powers of the world and received official recognition as one of the "Big Five" of the new international order. It joined the League of Nations and received a mandate over Pacific islands north of the Equator formerly held by Germany. Japan was also involved in the post-war Allied intervention in Russia, occupying Russian (Outer) Manchuria and also north Sakhalin (with its rich oil reserves). It was the last Allied power to withdraw from the interventions against Soviet Russia (doing so in 1925).
[edit] Militarism
Main article: Statism in Shōwa Japan

During the 1920s, Japan progressed toward a democratic system of government in a movement known as 'Taishō Democracy'. However, parliamentary government was not rooted deeply enough to withstand the economic and political pressures of the late 1920s and 1930s during the Depression era, and its state became increasingly militarized. This was due to the increasing powers of military leaders and was similar to the actions some European nations were taking leading up to World War II. These shifts in power were made possible by the ambiguity and imprecision of the Meiji Constitution, particularly its measure that the legislative body was answerable to the Emperor and not the people. The Kodoha, a militarist faction, even attempted a coup d'état known as the February 26 Incident, which was crushed after three days by Emperor Shōwa.

Party politics came under increasing fire because it was believed they were divisive to the nation and promoted self-interest where unity was needed. As a result, the major parties voted to dissolve themselves and were absorbed into a single party, the Imperial Rule Assistance Association (IRAA), which also absorbed many prefectural organizations such as women's clubs and neighborhood associations. However, this umbrella organization did not have a cohesive political agenda and factional in-fighting persisted throughout its existence, meaning Japan did not devolve into a totalitarian state. The IRAA has been likened to a sponge, in that it could soak everything up, but there is little one could do with it afterwards. Its creation was precipitated by a series of domestic crises, including the advent of the Great Depression in the 1930s and the actions of extremists such as the members of the Cherry Blossom Society, who enacted the May 15 Incident.
[edit] Second Sino-Japanese war and World War II
Main articles: Second Sino-Japanese war, Pacific War, and Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere
The Imperial Japanese Navy's Yamato, the largest battleship in history, 1941.

Under the pretext of the Manchurian Incident, Lieutenant Colonel Kanji Ishiwara invaded Inner (Chinese) Manchuria in 1931, an action the Japanese government ratified with the creation of the puppet state of Manchukuo under the last Chinese emperor, Pu Yi. As a result of international condemnation of the incident, Japan resigned from the League of Nations in 1933. After several more similar incidents fueled by an expansionist military, the second Sino-Japanese War began in 1937 after the Marco Polo Bridge Incident.

During the first part of the Shōwa period, according to the Meiji Constitution, the Emperor had the "supreme command of the Army and the Navy" (Article 11). From 1937, Emperor Shōwa became supreme commander of the Imperial General Headquarters, by which the military decisions were made. This ad-hoc body consisted of the chief and vice chief of the Army, the minister of the Army, the chief and vice chief of the Navy, the minister of the Navy, the inspector general of military aviation, and the inspector general of military training.

Having joined the Anti-Comintern Pact in 1936, Japan formed the Axis Pact with Germany and Italy on September 27, 1940. Many Japanese politicians believed war with the Occident to be inevitable due to inherent cultural differences and Western imperialism. Japanese imperialism was then justified by the revival of the traditional concept of hakko ichiu, the divine right of the emperor to unite and rule the world.

Japan fought the Soviet Union in 1938 in the Battle of Lake Khasan and in 1939 in the Battle of Khalkhin Gol. Comprehensive defeat of the Japanese by the Soviets led by Zhukov in the latter battle led to the signing of the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact.

Tensions were mounting with the U.S. as a result of public outcry over Japanese aggression and reports of atrocities in China, such as the infamous Nanjing Massacre. In retaliation to the invasion of French Indochina the U.S. began an embargo on such goods as petroleum products and scrap iron. On July 25, 1941, all Japanese assets in the US were frozen. Because Japan's military might, especially the Navy, was dependent on their dwindling oil reserves, this action had the contrary effect of increasing Japan's dependence on and hunger for new acquisitions.

Many civil leaders of Japan, including Prime Minister Konoe Fumimaro, believed a war with America would end in defeat, but felt the concessions demanded by the U.S. would almost certainly relegate Japan from the ranks of the World Powers, leaving it prey to Western collusion. Civil leaders offered political compromises in the form of the Amau Doctrine, dubbed the "Japanese Monroe Doctrine" that would have given the Japanese free rein with regards to war with China. These offers were flatly rejected by U.S. Secretary of State Cordell Hull; the military leaders instead vied for quick military action.

Most military leaders such as Osami Nagano, Kotohito Kan'in, Hajime Sugiyama and Hideki Tōjō believed that war with the Occident was inevitable. They finally convinced Emperor Shōwa to sanction on November 1941 an attack plan against U.S., Great Britain and the Netherlands. However, there were dissenters in the ranks about the wisdom of that option, most notably Admiral Yamamoto Isoroku and Prince Takamatsu. They pointedly warned that at the beginning of hostilities with the US, the Empire would have the advantage for six months, after which Japan's defeat in a prolonged war would be almost certain.
Planes from the Japanese aircraft carrier Shokaku preparing the attack on Pearl Harbor.

The Americans were expecting an attack in the Philippines (and stationed troops appropriate to this conjecture), but on Yamamoto Isoroku's advice, Japan made the decision to attack Pearl Harbor where it would make the most damage in the least amount of time. The United States believed that Japan would never be so bold as to attack so close to its home base (Hawaii had not yet become a state) and was taken completely by surprise.

The attack on Pearl Harbor, sanctioned by Emperor Shōwa on December 1 1941, occurred on December 7 (December 8 in Japan) and the Japanese were successful in their surprise attack. Although the Japanese won the battle, the attack proved a long-term strategic disaster that actually did relatively little lasting damage to the U.S. military and provoked the United States to retaliate with full commitment against Japan and its allies. At the same time as the Pearl Harbor attack, the Japanese army attacked colonial Hong Kong and occupied it for nearly four years.

While Nazi Germany was in the middle of its Blitzkrieg through Europe, Japan was following suit in Asia. In addition to already having colonized Taiwan and Manchuria, the Japanese Army invaded and captured most of the coastal Chinese cities such as Shanghai, and had conquered French Indochina (Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia), British Malaya (Brunei, Malaysia, Singapore) as well as the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia) while Thailand entered into a loose alliance with Japan. They had also conquered Burma (Myanmar) and reached the borders of India and Australia, conducting air raids on the port of Darwin, Australia. Japan had soon established an empire stretching over much of the Pacific.

However the Japanese Navy's offensive ability was crippled on its defeat in the Battle of Midway at the hands of the American Navy which turned the tide against them. After almost four years of war resulting in the loss of three million Japanese lives, the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the daily air raids on Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, Yokohama, the destruction of all other major cities (except Kyoto, Nara, and Kamakura, for their historical importance), and finally the Soviet Union's declaration of war on Japan the day before the second atomic bomb was dropped, Japan signed an instrument of surrender on the USS Missouri in Tokyo Harbor on September 2, 1945. Symbolically, the deck of the Missouri was furnished bare except for two American flags. One had flown on the mast of Commodore Perry's ship when he had sailed into that same bay nearly a century earlier to urge the opening of Japan's ports to foreign trade. The other U.S. flag came off the battleship while anchored in Tokyo Bay, it had not flown over the White House or the Capitol Building on 7 December 1941, it was "... just a plain ordinary GI flag."[17]

As a result of its defeat at the end of World War II, Japan lost all of its overseas possessions and retained only the home islands. Manchukuo was dissolved, and Inner Manchuria was returned to the Republic of China; Japan renounced all claims to Formosa; Korea was taken under the control of the UN; southern Sakhalin and the Kuriles were occupied by the U.S.S.R.; and the United States became the sole administering authority of the Ryukyu, Bonin, and Volcano Islands. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East, an international war crimes tribunal, sentenced seven Japanese military and government officials to death on November 12, 1948, including General Hideki Tōjō, for their roles in the war.

The 1972 reversion of Okinawa completed the United States' return of control of these islands to Japan. Japan continues to protest for the corresponding return of the Kuril Islands from Russia.

Defeat came for a number of reasons. The most important is probably Japan's underestimation of the industro-military capabilities of the U.S. The U.S. recovered from its initial setback at Pearl Harbor much quicker than the Japanese expected, and their sudden counterattack came as a blow to Japanese morale. U.S. output of military products was also much higher than Japanese counterparts over the course of the war. Another reason was factional in-fighting between the Army and Navy, which led to poor intelligence and cooperation. This was compounded as the Japanese forces found they had overextended themselves, leaving Japan itself vulnerable to attack. Another important factor is Japan's underestimation of resistance in China, which Japan[who?] claimed would be conquered in three months. The prolonged war was both militarily and economically disastrous for Japan.
[edit] Occupied Japan
General MacArthur and Emperor Hirohito.
Main article: Occupation of Japan

After the war, Japan was placed under international control of the American-led Allied powers in the Asia-Pacific region through General Douglas MacArthur as Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers. This was the first time since the unification of Japan that the island nation was successfully occupied by a foreign power. Some high officers of the Shōwa regime were prosecuted and convicted by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East. However, Emperor Shōwa, all members of the imperial family implicated in the war such as prince Asaka, prince Chichibu, prince Takeda, prince Higashikuni, prince Fushimi, as well as Shirō Ishii and all members of unit 731 were exonerated from criminal prosecutions by MacArthur.[18]

Entering the Cold War with the Korean War, Japan came to be seen as an important ally of the US government. Political, economic, and social reforms were introduced, such as an elected Japanese Diet (legislature) and expanded suffrage. The country's constitution took effect on May 3, 1947. The United States and 45 other Allied nations signed the Treaty of Peace with Japan in September 1951. The U.S. Senate ratified the treaty on March 20, 1952, and under the terms of the treaty, Japan regained full sovereignty on April 28, 1952.

Under the terms of the peace treaty and later agreements, the United States maintains naval bases at Sasebo, Okinawa and at Yokosuka. A portion of the U.S. Pacific Fleet, including one aircraft carrier (currently USS George Washington (CVN-73)), is based at Yokosuka. This arrangement is partially intended to provide for the defense of Japan, as the treaty and the new Japanese constitution imposed during the occupation severely restrict the size and purposes of Japanese Self-Defence Forces in the modern period.
[edit] Post-Occupation Japan 1952-1990
Main article: Post-Occupation Japan

After a series of realignment of political parties, the conservative Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) and the leftist Social Democratic Party (SDP) were formed in 1955. The political map in Japan had been largely unaltered until early 1990s and LDP had been the largest political party in the national politics.[19] LDP politicians and government bureaucrats focused on economic policy. From the 1950s to the 1980s, Japan experienced its rapid development into a major economic power, through a process often referred to as the Japanese post-war economic miracle.

Japan's biggest postwar political crisis took place in 1960 over the revision of the Japan-United States Mutual Security Assistance Pact. As the new Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security was concluded, which renewed the United States role as military protector of Japan, massive street protests and political upheaval occurred, and the cabinet resigned a month after the Diet's ratification of the treaty. Thereafter, political turmoil subsided. Japanese views of the United States, after years of mass protests over nuclear armaments and the mutual defense pact, improved by 1972 with the reversion of United States-occupied Okinawa to Japanese sovereignty and the winding down of the Vietnam War.

Japan had reestablished relations with the Republic of China after World War II, and cordial relations were maintained with the nationalist government when it was exiled to Taiwan, a policy that won Japan the enmity of the People's Republic of China, which was established in 1949. After the general warming of relations between China and Western countries, especially the United States, which shocked Japan with its sudden rapprochement with Beijing in 1971, Tokyo established relations with Beijing in 1972. Close cooperation in the economic sphere followed. Japan's relations with the Soviet Union continued to be problematic long after the war. The main object of dispute was the Soviet occupation of what Japan calls its Northern Territories, the two most southerly islands in the Kurils (Etorofu and Kunashiri) and Shikotan and the Habomai Islands, which were seized by the Soviet Union in the closing days of World War II.

Throughout the postwar period, Japan's economy continued to boom, with results far outstripping expectations. Given a massive boost by the Korean War, in which it acted as a major supplier to the UN force, Japan's economy embarked on a prolonged period of extremely rapid growth, led by the manufacturing sectors. Japan emerged as a significant power in many economic spheres, including steel working, car manufacturing and the manufacturing of electronic goods. Japan rapidly caught up with the West in foreign trade, GNP, and general quality of life. These achievements were underscored by the 1964 Tokyo Olympic Games and the Osaka International Exposition in 1970. The high economic growth and political tranquility of the mid to late 1960s were tempered by the quadrupling of oil prices by the OPEC in 1973. Almost completely dependent on imports for petroleum, Japan experienced its first recession since World War II. Another serious problem was Japan's growing trade surplus, which reached record heights during Nakasone's first term. The United States pressured Japan to remedy the imbalance, demanding that Tokyo raise the value of the yen and open its markets further to facilitate more imports from the United States.
[edit] Political and economic reform since 1990s

1989 marked one of the most rapid economic growth spurts in Japanese history. With a strong yen and a favorable exchange rate with the dollar, the Bank of Japan kept interest rates low, sparking an investment boom that drove Tokyo property values up sixty percent within the year. Shortly before New Year's Day, the Nikkei 225 reached its record high of 39,000. By 1991, it had fallen to 15,000, signifying the end of Japan's famed bubble economy.[20] Unemployment ran reasonably high, but not at crisis levels. Rather than suffer large scale unemployment and layoffs, Japan's labor market suffered in more subtle, yet no less profound effects that were nonetheless difficult to gauge statistically. During the prosperous times, jobs were seen as long term even to the point of being life long. In contrast, Japan during the lost decade saw a marked increase in temporary and part time work which only promised employment for short periods and marginal benefits. This also created a generational gap, as those who had entered the labor market prior to the lost decade usually retained their employment and benefits, and were effectively insulated from the economic slowdown, whereas younger workers who entered the market a few years later suffered the brunt of its effects.

In a series of financial scandals of the LDP, a coalition led by Morihiro Hosokawa took power in 1993. Hosokawa succeeded to legislate a new plurality voting election law instead of the stalemated multi-member constituency election system.[21] However, the coalition collapsed the next year as parties had gathered to simply overthrow LDP and lacked a unified position on almost every social issue. The LDP returned to the government in 1996, when it helped to elect Social Democrat Tomiichi Murayama as prime minister.

The Great Hanshin earthquake hit Kobe on January 17, 1995. 6,000 people were killed and 44,000 were injured. 250,000 houses were destroyed or burned in a fire. The amount of damage totaled more than ten trillion yen.[22] In March of the same year the doomsday cult Aum Shinrikyo attacked on the Tokyo subway system with sarin gas and killed 12 and hundreds were injured. Later the investigation revealed that the cult was responsible for dozens of murders that occurred prior to the gas attacks.[23]

Junichiro Koizumi was president of the LDP and Prime Minister of Japan from April 2001 to September 2006. Koizumi enjoyed high approval ratings. He was known as an economic reformer and he privatised the national postal system. Koizumi also had an active involvement in the War on Terrorism, sending 1,000 soldiers of the Japan Self-Defense Forces to help in Iraq's reconstruction after the Iraq War, the biggest overseas troop deployment since World War II.
[edit] Today

hawaaaii

2009-11-07T03:57:00.000-08:00

History of Hawaii
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History of Hawaii
Ancient times
Monarchy
Provisional Government
Republic
Territory
State

The history of Hawaii includes phases of early Polynesian settlement, British arrival, Euro-American and Asian immigration, the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy, a brief period of existing as a Republic, and admission to the United States as a territory and then a state.
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Discovery and settlement
* 2 Formation of the Hawaiian Kingdom
o 2.1 Missionary Arrival
o 2.2 The French Incident (1839)
o 2.3 The Paulet Affair (1843)
o 2.4 The French Invasion (1849)
* 3 Elected Monarchy
o 3.1 US-Hawaiian trade
o 3.2 First Hawaiian Renaissance
* 4 Hawaiian Revolutions
o 4.1 Rebellion of 1887
o 4.2 Rebellion of 1888
o 4.3 Rebellion of 1889
o 4.4 Revolution of 1893
o 4.5 Rebellion of 1895
* 5 Provisional Government of Hawaii
o 5.1 Leper War on Kauaʻi (1893)
* 6 Republic of Hawaii
* 7 American Territory
o 7.1 Annexation to the United States
o 7.2 Plantation era
o 7.3 Attack on Pearl Harbor
* 8 Democratic Revolution of 1954
* 9 Statehood
o 9.1 Second Hawaiian Renaissance
o 9.2 Modern Sovereignty Movements
* 10 See also
* 11 Notes
* 12 References
* 13 External links

[edit] Discovery and settlement
Main article: Ancient Hawaiʻi

The earliest settlements were made by Polynesians who traveled to Hawaii using large double-hulled canoes. They brought with them pigs, dogs, chickens, taro, sweet potatoes, coconut, banana, sugarcane, and much more.

There are several theories regarding migration to Hawaii. One such theory is the "one-migration" theory, which suggests that a single settlement of the islands occurred. A variation on the one-migration theory instead suggests a single, continuous settlement period.

A "multiple migration" theory supported by some early scholars suggests that there was a first settlement of Hawai'i by the Menehune (settlers from the Marquesas Islands), and then a second settlement by the Tahitians. Under this multiple migration theory, the later migration of taller and physically stronger people from Tahiti displaced (or otherwise overthrew) the earlier Menehune people, who fled to the mountains. Evidence of this earlier migration by the Menehune exists in various forms around the islands, such as the Menehune Fish Pond on Kauai. Proponents of this theory also point to an 1820 census of Kauaʻi by Kamualiʻi, the then-ruling chief of the island, which listed 65 people as "Menehune" (Schmitt 1981).

On January 18, 1778 Captain James Cook and his crew, while attempting to discover the fabled Northwest Passage between Alaska and Asia, were surprised to find the Hawaiian islands so far north in the Pacific.[1] He named them the Sandwich Islands. After the discovery by Cook, other Europeans and Americans came to the Sandwich Islands. An entry was found in James Cook's log describing the natives as "riding the ocean's waves on wooden boards", which became the first written account of surfing.
[edit] Formation of the Hawaiian Kingdom

Hawaii was united under a single ruler, Kamehameha I, for the first time in 1810 with the help of foreign weapons. Until 1816, the chiefs of the various islands considered themselves under British protection and flew the Union Flag[citation needed]. The monarchy then adopted a flag similar to the one used today by the State of Hawaii present flag, with the Union Flag in the canton (top quarter next to the flagpole) and eight horizontal stripes (alternating white, red and blue from the top), representing the eight major islands of Hawaiʻi.

In May 1819, Kamehameha II (Liholiho) ascended the throne. Under intense pressure from his co-regent and stepmother, Kaʻahumanu, he abolished the kapu system that had ruled life in the islands. He signaled this revolutionary change by sitting down to eat with Kaʻahumanu and other women of chiefly rank, thus violating kapu by eating with a woman, an act forbidden under the old religious system—see ʻAi Noa. Kekuaokalani, a cousin who was originally designated to share power with Liholiho by Kamehameha, organized dissidents in favor of preserving the kapu system, but his forces were defeated by Ka'ahumanu and LihoLiho in December 1819.[2]
[edit] Missionary Arrival

In 1820, missionaries from a New England Congregationalist missionary group, the ABCFM, arrived. They were formally received by Kamehameha II, and given a year of limited permission to proselytize. Within a few years, some of the highest-ranking chiefs converted, including Kaʻahumanu, Keʻopuolani, Hewahewa. The mission was then given permission to stay permanently. The commoners swiftly followed the example of their leaders and converted to Protestant Christianity and Hawaii became a decidedly Christian nation.

In 1839, Kamehameha III issued the Hawaiian Declaration of Rights, and in 1840 he promulgated the Constitution for the Hawaiian Islands, thus changing the governance of Hawaii from that of an absolute monarchy into a constitutional monarchy. The Constitution divided the powers of government among an elected legislative branch, a judicial branch, and the executive branch. The monarch (whether king or queen) became the chief executive and head of state. The laws of Hawaii reflected that of a Christian nation which often led to intense conflicts with other resident Westerners and visiting ships, all of whom preferred the old regime of abundant alcohol and promiscuous sexual relations.[citation needed]

Non-Hawaiian residents also pushed for a change in the land tenure practices of the kingdom. The idea of private property is alien to Native Hawaiian religious beliefs and practices. However, non-residents wished to hold land in fee simple according to their own customs. But according to Queen Lili'uokalani's autobiography, the monarchy, which endured British occupation in 1842, didn't want a foreign power to annex the Hawaiian Islands and dispossess Native Hawaiians. So the ruling chiefs were eventually persuaded to allow the land to be surveyed and divided between the king, the chiefs, and the commoners. Westerners would then be able to purchase land or register land claims. The Great Mahele (land division) was signed into law on March 7, 1848 by King Kamehameha III, or Kauikeaouli, son of Kamehameha I.
[edit] The French Incident (1839)
Artémise

In 1839 Captain Laplace of the French frigate Artémise sailed to Hawaii under orders to:

Destroy the malevolent impression which you find established to the detriment of the French name; to rectify the erroneous opinion which has been created as to the power of France; and to make it well understood that it would be to the advantage of the chiefs of those islands of the Ocean to conduct themselves in such a manner as not to incur the wrath of France. You will exact, if necessary with all the force that is yours to use, complete reparation for the wrongs which have been committed, and you will not quit those places until you have left in all minds a solid and lasting impression.[cite this quote]

Under the rule of Ka'ahumanu, the notorious newly-converted Protestant widow of Kamehameha the Great, Catholicism was illegal in Hawaii and chiefs loyal to her forcibly deported French priests onto the Artemise. Native Hawaiian Catholic converts were imprisoned and Protestant ministers ordered them to be tortured. The prejudice against the French Catholics missionaries remained the same under the reign of her successor, the Kuhina Nui Ka'ahumanu II.

Under the threat of war, King Kamehameha III signed the Edict of Toleration on July 17, 1839 and paid $20,000 in compensation for the deportation of the priests and the incarceration and torture of converts, agreeing to Laplace's demands. The kingdom proclaimed:

That the Catholic worship be declared free, throughout all the dominions subject to the king of the Sandwich Islands; the members of this religious faith shall enjoy in them the privileges granted to Protestants.

The Roman Catholic Diocese of Honolulu returned unpersecuted and Kamehameha III donated land for them to build a church on, as reparation.
[edit] The Paulet Affair (1843)

The most serious incident occurred on February 10, 1843. Lord George Paulet of the Royal Navy warship HMS Carysfort entered Honolulu Harbor and captured the Honolulu fort, effectively gaining control of the town. Paulet demanded that King Kamehameha III abdicate and that the Hawaiian Islands be ceded to the British Crown. Under the guns of the frigate, Kamehameha stepped down, but lodged a formal protest with both the British government and Paulet's superior, Admiral Richard Thomas. Thomas repudiated Paulet's actions, and on July 31, 1843, restored the Hawaiian government. In his restoration speech, Kamehameha declared that "Ua mau ke ea o ka ʻāina i ka pono" (The sovereignty of the land is perpetuated in righteousness), the motto of the future State of Hawaiʻi when it was then translated as "The life of the land is perpetuated in righteousness."

On Monday, February 13, 1843, Lord George Paulet, of HMS Carysfort, attempted to annex the islands for alleged insults and malpractices against British subjects.[3] Kamehameha III surrendered to Paulet on February 25, writing:

Where are you, chiefs, people, and commons from my ancestors, and people from foreign lands?'

Hear ye! I make known to you that I am in perplexity by reason of difficulties into which I have been brought without cause, therefore I have given away the life of our land. Hear ye! but my rule over you, my people, and your privileges will continue, for I have hope that the life of the land will be restored when my conduct is justified.

Done at Honolulu, Oahu, this 25th day of February, 1843.

Kamehameha III.

Kekauluohi.[4]

Dr. Gerrit P. Judd, a missionary who had become the Minister of Finance for the Kingdom of Hawaii, secretly arranged for General J.F.B. Marshall to be the King's envoy to the United States, France and Britain, to protest Paulet's actions.[5] Marshall was able to secretly convey the Kingdom's complaint to the Vice Consul of Britain in Tepec, posing as a commercial agent of Ladd & Co., a company with friendly relations with the Kingdom.

Marshall's complaint was forwarded to Rear Admiral Thomas, Paulet's commanding officer, who arrived at Honolulu harbor on July 26, 1843 on H.B.M.S. Dublin from Valparaiso, Chile. Admiral Thomas apologized to Kamehameha III for Paulet's actions, and restored Hawaiian sovereignty on July 31, 1843.
[edit] The French Invasion (1849)
Honolulu Fort, 1853

In August 1849, French admiral Louis Tromelin arrived in Honolulu Harbor with the La Poursuivante and Gassendi. De Tromelin made ten demands to King Kamehameha III on August 22, mainly demanding that full religious rights be given to Catholics, (a decade earlier, during the so-called 'French Incident' the ban on Catholicism had been lifted, but Catholics still enjoyed only partial religious rights). On August 25 the demands had not been met. After a second warning was made to the civilians, French troops overwhelmed the skeleton force and captured Honolulu Fort, spiked the coastal guns and destroyed all other weapons they found (mainly muskets and ammunition). They raided government buildings and general property in Honolulu, causing $100,000 in damages. After the raids the invasion force withdrew to the fort. De Tromelin eventually recalled his men and left Hawaii on September 5.
[edit] Elected Monarchy

Dynastic rule by the Kamehameha family tragically ended in 1872 with the death of Lot (Kamehameha V). Upon his deathbed, he summoned Princess Bernice Pauahi Bishop to declare his intentions of making her heir to the throne. She was the last direct Kamehameha family member surviving. She refused the crown and throne in favor of a private life with her husband, Charles Reed Bishop. Lot died before naming an alternative heir.
[edit] US-Hawaiian trade

On March 18, 1874 Hawaii signed a treaty with the United States granting Americans exclusive trading rights.

The Reciprocity Treaty of 1875 between the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi and the United States allowed for duty-free importation of Hawaiian sugar (from cane) into the United States beginning in 1876. This act greatly altered the Hawaiian landscape by promoting sugar plantation agriculture. Although the treaty also included duty-free importation of rice, which was by this time becoming a major crop in the abandoned taro loʻi of the wetter parts of the islands, it was the influx of immigrants from Asia (first Chinese, and later Japanese) needed to support the escalating sugar industry that provided the impetus for expansion of rice growing in Hawaiʻi. Thus the Treaty had several far reaching impacts on Hawaiʻi:

* Sugar cane and plantation agriculture expanded greatly.
* High water requirements for growing sugar cane resulted in extensive water works projects on all of the major islands to divert streams from the wet windward slopes to the dry lowlands.
* An influx of Asian immigrants was encouraged to work the plantations.
* Taro, the traditional Hawaiian staple, was replaced by rice, to satisfy an expanding local market for the latter.

[edit] First Hawaiian Renaissance
Main article: Kalākaua
[edit] Hawaiian Revolutions
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Main articles: Overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom, Republic of Hawaii, and Hawaiian Revolutions
King David Kalākaua

The Hawaiian Rebellions and Revolutions took place in Hawaii between 1887 and 1895. Until annexation in 1898, Hawaii was an independent sovereign state, recognized by the United States, United Kingdom, France and Germany with exchange of ambassadors. However, there were several challenges to the reigning governments of the Kingdom and Republic of Hawaii during the eight and a half year (1887-1895) period.
[edit] Rebellion of 1887
Main article: Bayonet Constitution#Rebellion of 1887

In 1887, a group of cabinet officials and advisors to King David Kalākaua and an armed militia forced the king to promulgate what is known by its critics as the "Bayonet Constitution". The impetus behind the imposition of the 1887 constitution was the frustration amongst members of the Reform Party (also known as the Missionary Party) with the growing debt of the Kingdom, the spending habits of the King, and general governance of the Kingdom. It was specifically triggered by an ill-fated attempt by Kalakaua to create a Polynesian Federation under his rule, and a bribery scandal Kalakaua was involved in regarding opium licenses.[6][7] The 1887 constitution stripped the monarchy of much of its authority, imposed significant income and property requirements for voting, and completely disenfranchised all Asians from voting.[8] Only well-to-do Europeans, Americans and native Hawaiians were given full voting rights. When Kalākaua died in 1891 during a visit to San Francisco, his sister Liliʻuokalani assumed the throne.

Native Hawaiians on the other hand, according to Queen Lili'uokalani in her autobiography, called her brother's reign "a golden age materially for Hawaii" and felt that the new constitution was imposed by a minority of the foreign population because of the king's refusal to renew the Reciprocity Treaty, which now included an amendment that would have allowed the US Navy to have a permanent naval base at Pearl Harbor in O'ahu, and the king's foreign policy. According to bills submitted by the King to the Hawaiian parliament, the King's foreign policy included an alliance with Japan and supporting other Malay countries suffering from colonialism. Native Hawaiians were deeply opposed to a permanent US military presence in their country.
[edit] Rebellion of 1888
Main article: Wilcox rebellions#Dominis Conspiracy

A plot by Princess Lili'uokalani was exposed to overthrow King David Kalākaua in a military coup.
[edit] Rebellion of 1889
Main article: Wilcox Rebellion

In 1889, a rebellion of Native Hawaiians led by Colonel Robert Wilcox attempted to replace the hated Bayonet Constitution and stormed 'Iolani Palace. The rebellion was later crushed.
[edit] Revolution of 1893
Main article: Overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii
Fine screen halftone reproduction of a photograph of the ship's landing force on duty at the Arlington Hotel, Honolulu, at the time of the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy, January 1893. Lieutenant Lucien Young, USN, commanded the detachment, and is presumably the officer at right.

According the Queen Lili'uokalani in her autobiography, Hawai'i's Story by Hawai'i's Queen, immediately upon ascending the throne, she received petitions from 2/3 of her subjects and the major Native Hawaiian political party in parliament, Hui Kalai'aina, asking her to proclaim a new constitution. Believing her actions were supported by both her cabinet and her Native Hawaiian subjects, Liliʻuokalani drafted a new constitution that would restore the monarchy's authority and strip American and European residents of the suffrage they had obtained in 1887 by threat of force against King Kalakaua.

In response to Liliʻuokalani's attempt to promulgate a new constitution, a group of European and American residents formed a "Committee of Safety" on January 14, 1893 in opposition to the Queen and her plans. After a mass meeting of supporters, the Committee committed itself to the removal of the Queen, and seeking annexation to the United States.[9]

United States Government Minister John L. Stevens summoned a company of uniformed U.S. Marines from the U.S.S. Boston and two companies of U.S. sailors to land on the Kingdom and take up positions at the U.S. Legation, Consulate, and Arion Hall on the afternoon of January 16, 1893. This deployment was at the request of the Committee of Safety, which claimed an "imminent threat to American lives and property". Historian William Russ states, "the injunction to prevent fighting of any kind made it impossible for the monarchy to protect itself."[10] A provisional government was set up with the strong support of the Honolulu Rifles, a militia group which had defended the Kingdom against the Wilcox rebellion in 1889. Under this pressure, Liliʻuokalani gave up her throne to the Committee of Safety. The Queen's statement yielding authority, on January 17, 1893, also pleaded for justice:

I Liliʻuokalani, by the Grace of God and under the Constitution of the Hawaiian Kingdom, Queen, do hereby solemnly protest against any and all acts done against myself and the Constitutional Government of the Hawaiian Kingdom by certain persons claiming to have established a Provisional Government of and for this Kingdom.

That I yield to the superior force of the United States of America whose Minister Plenipotentiary, His Excellency John L. Stevens, has caused United States troops to be landed at Honolulu and declared that he would support the Provisional Government.

Now to avoid any collision of armed forces, and perhaps the loss of life, I do this under protest and impelled by said force yield my authority until such time as the Government of the United States shall, upon facts being presented to it, undo the action of its representatives and reinstate me in the authority which I claim as the Constitutional Sovereign of the Hawaiian Islands.

An immediate investigation into the events of the overthrow was commissioned by President Cleveland was conducted by former Congressman James Henderson Blount. The Blount Report was completed on July 17, 1893 and concluded that "United States diplomatic and military representatives had abused their authority and were responsible for the change in government.".[11]

Minister Stevens was recalled, and the military commander of forces in Hawaiʻi was forced to resign his commission. President Cleveland stated "Substantial wrong has thus been done which a due regard for our national character as well as the rights of the injured people requires we should endeavor to repair the monarchy." Cleveland further stated in his 1893 State of the Union Address[12] and that, "Upon the facts developed it seemed to me the only honorable course for our Government to pursue was to undo the wrong that had been done by those representing us and to restore as far as practicable the status existing at the time of our forcible intervention." Submitting the matter to Congress on December 18, 1893, after provisional President Sanford Dole refused to reinstate the Queen on Cleveland's command, the Senate Foreign Relations Committee under chairman John Morgan, continued investigation into the matter.

On February 26, 1894, the Morgan Report was submitted, contradicting the Blount Report and finding Stevens and the U.S. troops "not guilty" of any involvement in the overthrow. The report asserted that, "The complaint by Liliuokalani in the protest that she sent to the President of the United States and dated the 18th day of January, is not, in the opinion of the committee, well founded in fact or in justice."[13] After submission of the Morgan Report, Cleveland ended any efforts to reinstate the monarchy, and conducted normal diplomatic relations with the Provisional Government and later, the Republic of Hawaiʻi. He rebuffed further entreaties from the Queen to intervene further in the matter.

The Republic of Hawaiʻi was established July 4, 1894 under the presidency of Sanford Dole.
[edit] Rebellion of 1895
Main article: 1895 Counter-Revolution in Hawaii

In 1895, a counter-rebellion led by Colonel Robert Nowlein, Minister Joseph Nawahi, members of the Royal Household Guards, and later Robert Wilcox attempted to overthrow the Republic of Hawaii, and led to the conviction and imprisonment of the former Queen Liliuokalani. According to A History of Hawai'i by Professor Ralph Kuykendall, the 1895 counter-rebellion was also heavily financed by Chinese and Japanese immigrants, who had felt some loyalty to Queen Lili'uokalani.
[edit] Provisional Government of Hawaii
Main article: Provisional Government of Hawaii

The Provisional Government of Hawaii was a short-term government intended to manage the Hawaiian Island between the time of the overthrow and annexation. The annexation was to take place under the Benjamin Harrison administration, but the matter of annexation landed on the newly reelected Grover Cleveland, a friend of Liliuokalani and anti-expansionist. He delayed annexation and demanded the return of the queen. Annexation began to stagger and fears grew of a US intervention to restore the kingdom. A Constitutional Convention began on May 30, 1894 and the Republic of Hawaii was declared on 4 July 1894 and was no coincidence it was on American Independence Day.
[edit] Leper War on Kauaʻi (1893)
Main article: Provisional Government of Hawaii#The Leper War on Kauaʻi (1893)
[edit] Republic of Hawaii
Main article: Republic of Hawaii
[edit] American Territory
Main article: Territory of Hawaiʻi
[edit] Annexation to the United States
Well, I hardly know which to take first! 5-28-1898.JPG
A page of the Ku’e Petitions that prevented Hawaii from being annexed by treaty.

Several pro-royalist groups submitted petitions against annexation in 1898. In 1900 those groups disbanded and formed the Hawaiian Independent Party, under the leadership of Robert Wilcox, the first Congressional Representative from the Territory of Hawaii
Sanford B. Dole, left, continued as President of the newly created Territory of Hawai'i until the Hawaiian Organic Act of 1900 established a permanent territorial government led by a governor.

In 1896, William McKinley succeeded Cleveland as president. He agreed to a treaty of annexation but it failed in the Senate with the submission of the Ku’e petitions. A joint resolution was written by Congressman Francis G. Newlands to annex Hawaii. McKinley signed the Newlands Resolution which provided for the official annexation of Hawaiʻi on July 7, 1898 and the islands officially became Hawaiʻi Territory, a United States territory, on February 22, 1900. The territorial legislature convened for the first time on February 20, 1901.

The overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi and the subsequent annexation of Hawaiʻi has recently been cited as the first major instance of American imperialism.[14]

In 1993, the US Congress passed Public Law 103-150 ("The Apology Bill") which corrects misinformation regarding the overthrow of the monarchy and apologizes on behalf of the United States for the "suppression of the inherent sovereignty of the Native Hawaiian people".
[edit] Plantation era
Main articles: Sugar plantations in Hawaii and Big Five (Hawaii)
Sugar Plantation
[edit] Attack on Pearl Harbor
USS Arizona

An attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941 by the Empire of Japan was a trigger for the United States' entry into World War II. Up until that time, most Americans had never heard of Pearl Harbor, even though it had great importance to the US Navy. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii was put under martial law until the end of the war.
[edit] Democratic Revolution of 1954
Main article: Democratic Revolution of 1954 (Hawaii)

The Democratic Revolution of 1954 was a nonviolent revolution consisting of Industry-wide strikes, protests, and other acts of civil disobedience. The Revolution culminated in the territorial elections of 1954 where the reign of the Hawaii Republican Party in the legislature came to an abrupt end, as they were voted out of office to be replaced by members of the Democratic Party of Hawaii. The Democrats successfully lobbied for statehood and gained the governorship for 40 years, from 1962 to 2002. The Revolution also unionized the labor force and was largely responsible for the decline of the plantation industry.
[edit] Statehood

President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed a bill on March 18, 1959 which allowed for Hawaiian statehood. Hawaiʻi formally became the 50th state of the Union on August 21, 1959 after a vote of over 94% in favor of statehood.
All islands voted at least 93% in favor of Admission acts. Ballot (inset) and referendum results for the Admission Act of 1959.
[edit] Second Hawaiian Renaissance
Main article: Hawaiian Renaissance
[edit] Modern Sovereignty Movements
Unbalanced scales.svg
The neutrality of this section is disputed. Please see the discussion on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved. (December 2007)
Main article: Hawaiian sovereignty movement

For many Native Hawaiians, the manner in which Hawaiʻi became a U.S. possession has been a bitter part of its history. Immediately after 1898, Native Hawaiians created the Home Rule Party of Hawaiʻi and had adopted statehood as a path towards more self-government since Hawai'i governors and judges were direct political appointees of the US president. After years of cultural and societal repression and with the self-determination movements worldwide, the 1960s saw the rebirth of Hawaiian culture and identity. It also saw the rebirth of Hawaiian nationalism and the quest for some form of Hawaiian nationhood. There is a wide continuum of political positions within the sovereignty movement, ranging from supporters of the Akaka Bill (which has the support of many Democratic and Republican Party politicians in Hawaii) to advocates of secession from the United States.[citation needed]

With the support of U.S. Senators Daniel Inouye and Daniel Akaka of Hawaiʻi, Congress passed the "Apology Resolution" (US Public Law 103-150), a joint resolution of the United States Congress. It was signed by President Bill Clinton on November 23, 1993. This resolution explicitly apologized "to Native Hawaiians on behalf of the people of the United States for the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii on January 17, 1893... and the deprivation of the rights of Native Hawaiians to self-determination." The historical and factual basis of the apology has been criticized by constitutional lawyer and scholar Bruce Fein[15] and others, including activist Ken Conklin[16][17]. Other historians and U.S. and international law experts have supported the conclusions of both the Blount Report and the Public Law 103-150, and some argue that the issue of Hawaiian sovereignty is a legitimate international subject that should be taken to the UN Committee on Decolonization.[18]

Senator Akaka is also author of a bill with the stated purpose "to provide a process for the reorganization of the single Native Hawaiian governing entity and the reaffirmation of the special political and legal relationship between the United States and that Native Hawaiian governing entity for purposes of continuing a government-to-government relationship"[19]. The bill would extend federal recognition to those of native Hawaiian ancestry as a sovereign group similar to Native American tribes, by providing a process for the creation of a single governing entity and beginning a government-to-government relationship with that entity. Supporters assert that this would simply reaffirm an existing special political and legal relationship between the United States and Native Hawaiians, as evidenced by past Congressional legislation and existing state and federal programs. Critics suggest such actions are unprecedented and note that the provisions of the Akaka Bill would grant recognition to Native Hawaiians without any of the same qualifications necessary for tribal recognition. The "Akaka Bill" was recently brought up in the Senate, however, a movement to vote on the measure failed by 56 to 41 votes - four votes short of the necessary 60 votes to invoke cloture.

haloween

2009-11-07T03:56:00.000-08:00

Halloween
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Halloween (disambiguation).
Halloween
Halloween
The Jack-o'-lantern
Also called All Hallows’ Eve
All Saints’ Eve
Observed by Around the world
Type Secular, with roots in Christian and Celtic tradition
Date October 31
Observances Costume parties, trick-or-treating in costumes, bonfires, divination
Related to Samhain, All Saints’ Day

Halloween (also spelled Hallowe'en) is an annual holiday celebrated on October 31. It has roots in the Celtic festival of Samhain and the Christian holy day of All Saints, but is today largely a secular celebration.

Halloween activities include trick-or-treating, wearing costumes and attending costume parties, carving jack-o'-lanterns, ghost tours, bonfires, visiting haunted attractions, pranks, telling scary stories, and watching horror films.
Contents
[hide]

* 1 History
o 1.1 Origin of name
* 2 Symbols
* 3 Trick-or-treating and guising
o 3.1 Costumes
+ 3.1.1 Costume sales
o 3.2 UNICEF
* 4 Games and other activities
o 4.1 Haunted attractions
o 4.2 Foods
* 5 Around the world
* 6 Religious perspectives
* 7 See also
* 8 References
* 9 Further reading
* 10 External links

History

Historian Nicholas Rogers, exploring the origins of Halloween, notes that while "some folklorists have detected its origins in the Roman feast of Pomona, the goddess of fruits and seeds, or in the festival of the dead called Parentalia, [it is] more typically linked to the Celtic festival of Samhain or Samuin (pronounced sow-an or sow-in)".[1] The name is derived from Old Irish and means roughly "summer's end".[1] A similar festival was held by the ancient Britons and is known as Calan Gaeaf (pronounced kalan-geyf).
Snap-Apple Night by Daniel Maclise showing a Halloween party in Blarney, Ireland, in 1832. The young children on the right bob for apples. A couple in the center play a variant, which involves retrieving an apple hanging from a string. The couples at left play divination games.

The festival of Samhain celebrates the end of the "lighter half" of the year and beginning of the "darker half", and is sometimes[2] regarded as the "Celtic New Year".[3]

The ancient Celts believed that the border between this world and the Otherworld became thin on Samhain, allowing spirits (both harmless and harmful) to pass through. The family's ancestors were honoured and invited home whilst harmful spirits were warded off. It is believed that the need to ward off harmful spirits led to the wearing of costumes and masks. Their purpose was to disguise oneself as a harmful spirit and thus avoid harm. In Scotland the spirits were impersonated by young men dressed in white with masked, veiled or blackened faces.[4][5] Samhain was also a time to take stock of food supplies and slaughter livestock for winter stores. Bonfires played a large part in the festivities. All other fires were doused and each home lit their hearth from the bonfire. The bones of slaughtered livestock were cast into its flames.[6] Sometimes two bonfires would be built side-by-side, and people and their livestock would walk between them as a cleansing ritual.

Another common practise was divination, which often involved the use of food and drink.

The name 'Halloween' and many of its present-day traditions derive from the Old English era.[7][8][9][10]
Origin of name

The word Halloween is first attested in the 16th century and represents a Scots variant of the fuller All-Hallows-Even, that is, the night before All Hallows Day. Although the phrase All Hallows is found in Old English (ealra hálȝena mæssedæȝ, the feast of all saints), All-Hallows-Even is itself not attested until 1556. Thus there is no evidence of an English term for this day before the Reformation.[11]
Symbols
A traditional Irish halloween turnip Jack-o'-lantern from the early 20th century on display in the Museum of Country Life, Ireland.

Development of artifacts and symbols associated with Halloween formed over time encompassing customs of medieval holy days as well as contemporary cultures. The souling practice of commemorating the souls in purgatory with candle lanterns carved from turnips, became adapted into the making of jack-o'-lanterns.[12] In traditional Celtic Halloween festivals, large turnips were hollowed out, carved with faces and placed in windows to ward off evil spirits.[5] The carving of pumpkins is associated with Halloween in North America where pumpkins are both readily available and much larger – making them easier to carve than turnips.[13] Many families that celebrate Halloween carve a pumpkin into a frightening or comical face and place it on their doorstep after dark. The American tradition of carving pumpkins preceded the Great Famine period of Irish immigration[14] and was originally associated with harvest time in general, not becoming specifically associated with Halloween until the mid-to-late 1800s.[15][16]
Halloween spiders at a row house in Washington DC

The imagery surrounding Halloween is largely a mix of the Halloween season itself, works of Gothic and horror literature, in particular the novels Frankenstein and Dracula, and nearly a century of work from American filmmakers and graphic artists,[17] and British Hammer Horror productions, also a rather commercialized take on the dark and mysterious. Halloween imagery tends to involve death, evil, the occult, magic, or mythical monsters. Traditional characters include the Devil, the Grim Reaper, ghosts, ghouls, demons, witches, goblins, vampires, werewolves, zombies, skeletons, black cats, spiders, bats, and crows.[18]

Particularly in America, symbolism is inspired by classic horror films (which contain fictional figures like Frankenstein's monster and The Mummy). Elements of the autumn season, such as pumpkins, corn husks, and scarecrows, are also prevalent. Homes are often decorated with these types of symbols around Halloween.

The colours black and orange are associated with the celebrations,[19] perhaps because of the darkness of night and the colour of fire, autumn leaves, or pumpkins.
Trick-or-treating and guising
Main article: Trick-or-treating
Typical Halloween scene in Dublin, Ireland.

Trick-or-treating is a customary celebration for children on Halloween. Children go in costume from house to house, asking for treats such as candy or sometimes money, with the question, "Trick or treat?" The word "trick" refers to a (mostly idle) threat to perform mischief on the homeowners or their property if no treat is given. In some parts of Ireland and Scotland children still go guising. In this custom the child performs some sort of show, i.e. sings a song or tells a ghost story, in order to earn their treats.
Costumes
Main article: Halloween costume

Halloween costumes are traditionally those of monsters such as ghosts, skeletons, witches, and devils. They are said to be used to scare off demons. Costumes are also based on themes other than traditional horror, such as those of characters from television shows, movies, and other pop culture icons.
Costume sales

BIGresearch conducted a survey for the National Retail Federation in the United States and found that 53.3% of consumers planned to buy a costume for Halloween 2005, spending $38.11 on average (up $10 from the year before). They were also expected to spend $4.96 billion in 2006, up significantly from just $3.3 billion the previous year.[20]
UNICEF
Main article: Trick-or-Treat for UNICEF

"Trick-or-Treat for UNICEF" has become a common sight during Halloween in North America. Started as a local event in a Philadelphia suburb in 1950 and expanded nationally in 1952, the program involves the distribution of small boxes by schools (or in modern times, corporate sponsors like Hallmark, at their licensed stores) to trick-or-treaters, in which they can solicit small-change donations from the houses they visit. It is estimated that children have collected more than $118 million (US) for UNICEF since its inception. In Canada, in 2006, UNICEF decided to discontinue their Halloween collection boxes, citing safety and administrative concerns; after consultation with schools, they instead redesigned the program.[21][22]
Games and other activities
This section is missing citations or needs footnotes. Please help add inline citations to guard against copyright violations and factual inaccuracies. (October 2008)
In this Halloween greeting card from 1904, divination is depicted: the young woman looking into a mirror in a darkened room hopes to catch a glimpse of the face of her future husband.

There are several games traditionally associated with Halloween parties. One common game is dunking or apple bobbing, in which apples float in a tub or a large basin of water and the participants must use their teeth to remove an apple from the basin.[23] A variant of dunking involves kneeling on a chair, holding a fork between the teeth and trying to drop the fork into an apple[24]. Another common game involves hanging up treacle or syrup-coated scones by strings; these must be eaten without using hands while they remain attached to the string, an activity that inevitably leads to a very sticky face.

Some games traditionally played at Halloween are forms of divination. A traditional Irish and Scottish form of divining one's future spouse is to carve an apple in one long strip, then toss the peel over one's shoulder. The peel is believed to land in the shape of the first letter of the future spouse's name.[25] Unmarried women were told[who?] that if they sat in a darkened room and gazed into a mirror on Halloween night, the face of their future husband would appear in the mirror. However, if they were destined to die before marriage, a skull would appear. The custom was widespread enough to be commemorated on greeting cards[26] from the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

The telling of ghost stories and viewing of horror films are common fixtures of Halloween parties. Episodes of television series and Halloween-themed specials (with the specials usually aimed at children) are commonly aired on or before the holiday, while new horror films are often released theatrically before the holiday to take advantage of the atmosphere.
Haunted attractions
Main article: Haunted attraction
In front of haunted house during Halloween season, Northern California.

Haunted attractions are entertainment venues designed to thrill and scare patrons; most are seasonal Halloween businesses. Origins of these paid scare venues are difficult to pinpoint, but it is generally accepted that they were first commonly used by the Junior Chamber International (Jaycees) for fundraising.[27] They include haunted houses, corn mazes, and hayrides,[28] and the level of sophistication of the effects has risen as the industry has grown. Haunted attractions in the United States bring in an estimate $300–500 million each year, and draw some 400,000 customers, although trends suggest a peak in 2005[27]. This increase in interest has led to more highly technical special effects and costuming that is comparable with that in Hollywood films.[29]
Foods
Candy apple

Because the holiday comes in the wake of the annual apple harvest, candy apples (known as toffee apples outside North America), caramel or taffy apples are a common Halloween treat made by rolling whole apples in a sticky sugar syrup, sometimes followed by rolling them in nuts.

At one time, candy apples were commonly given to children, but the practice rapidly waned in the wake of widespread rumors that some individuals were embedding items like pins and razor blades in the apples.[30] While there is evidence of such incidents,[31] they are quite rare and have never resulted in serious injury. Nonetheless, many parents assumed that such heinous practices were rampant. At the peak of the hysteria, some hospitals offered free x-rays of children's Halloween hauls in order to find evidence of tampering. Virtually all of the few known candy poisoning incidents involved parents who poisoned their own children's candy, and there have been occasional reports of children putting needles in their own (and other children's) candy in need of a bit of attention.[citation needed]

One custom that persists in modern-day Ireland is the baking (or more often nowadays, the purchase) of a barmbrack (Irish: báirín breac), which is a light fruitcake, into which a plain ring, a coin and other charms are placed before baking. It is said that those who get a ring will find their true love in the ensuing year. This is similar to the tradition of king cake at the festival of Epiphany.

List of foods associated with the holiday:

* Barmbrack (Ireland)
* Bonfire toffee (Britain)
* Candy apples
* Candy corn (North America)
* Caramel apples
* Caramel corn
* Colcannon (Ireland)
* Pumpkin, pumpkin pie, pumpkin bread
* Roasted pumpkin seeds
* Roasted sweet corn
* Soul cakes
* Novelty candy shaped like skulls, pumpkins, bats, worms, etc.

Around the world
Main article: Halloween around the world

Halloween is not celebrated in all countries and regions of the world, and among those that do the traditions and importance of the celebration vary significantly. Celebration in the United States has had a significant impact on how the holiday is observed in other nations. This larger American influence, particularly in iconic and commercial elements, has extended to places such as South America, Europe, to Japan under the auspices of the Japanese Biscuit Association, and the Far East.[32]
Religious perspectives
See also: All Saints and Samhain

Christian attitudes towards Halloween are quite diverse. In the Anglican Church, some dioceses have chosen to emphasize the Christian traditions of All Saints’ Day,[33][34] while some other Protestants celebrate the holiday as Reformation Day, a day to remember the Protestant Reformation.[35][36]

Many Christians ascribe no negative significance to Halloween, treating it as a purely secular holiday devoted to celebrating "imaginary spooks" and handing out candy. Halloween celebrations are common among Roman Catholic parochial schools throughout North America and in Ireland. In fact, the Roman Catholic Church sees Halloween as having a Christian connection.[37] Father Gabriele Amorth, a Vatican-appointed exorcist in Rome, has said, "[I]f English and American children like to dress up as witches and devils on one night of the year that is not a problem. If it is just a game, there is no harm in that."[38]

Most[citation needed] Christians hold the view that the tradition is far from being satanic in origin or practice and that it holds no threat to the spiritual lives of children: being taught about death and mortality, and the ways of the Celtic ancestors actually being a valuable life lesson and a part of many of their parishioners' heritage.[39] Other Christians feel concerned about Halloween, and reject the holiday because they believe it trivializes (and celebrates) "the occult" and what they perceive as evil.[40] A response among some fundamentalists in recent years has been the use of 'Hell houses' or themed pamphlets (such as those of Jack T. Chick) which attempt to make use of Halloween as an opportunity for evangelism.[41][dead link]

Some consider Halloween to be completely incompatible with the Christian faith[42] because of its origin as a pagan "Festival of the Dead." In more recent years, the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Boston has organized a "Saint Fest" on the holiday.[41] Many contemporary Protestant churches view Halloween as a fun event for children, holding events in their churches where children and their parents can dress up, play games, and get candy. Jehovah's Witnesses do not celebrate Halloween because they believe anything that originated from a pagan holiday should not be celebrated by true Christians.[43]

Religions other than Christianity also have varied views on Halloween. Celtic Pagans consider the season a holy time of year.[44] Celtic Reconstructionists, and others who maintain ancestral customs, make offerings to the gods and the ancestors.[44] Some Wiccans feel that the tradition is offensive to "real witches" for promoting stereotypical caricatures of "wicked witches".[45]
See also

postingan acak

2009-11-07T03:53:00.000-08:00

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More legal professionals than ever before are fulfilling the requirements for California Bar MCLE than ever before by going online and taking the courses via the Internet. There are many different websites online that companies have put together to help professionals take these courses that are needed right from the comfort of their own homes, any time it is convenient for them.

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November 1st, 2009 | Category: Education | Leave a comment
How to Unblock Blocked Ear
Don’t waste your time searching for methods how to unblock blocked ears all over the internet any longer. The ways how to unblock blocked ear described on the internet as free tips from regular public and the methods described in the forums do not work and some of them will even cause you ear infections. The best ways to unblock your ears is by sticking to the methods that have being proven to work for decades and are safe to perform from the comfort of your own home.

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Natural Dandruff Remedy

If you are looking for a dandruff remedy, you are not alone. Dandruff is a common problem that can be solved with ease with some natural remedies. What are you going to do when your dandruff is gone? Dark clothing will no longer cause you any embarrassment any more. Keep reading to find out about some natural remedies.

Continue reading Natural Dandruff Remedy
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Insomnia Help-Natural Remedies versus Pills
Both natural remedies and sleeping pills undoubtedly works for those who seek help for their insomnia issues, but which among the two can really bring you the most desirable effect?

2009-11-05T23:58:00.000-08:00

ptember 2009
Attraction Marketing: What to Do If You Do Not Have a Pretty Face
Attraction marketing is a fairly new term that many people do not understand. The key is that people would rather do business with someone they find attractive. That may be all well and good, but if you do not have a pretty face, you might wonder how you will accomplish attraction marketing. It is possible if you understand what the term really means.

When most people think of someone who is attractive, they think of a lovely face, a well-proportioned body, and other beautiful features such as silky, flowing hair. You may be blessed with such an appearance. If so, you have an advantage over someone who does not when attraction marketing is not considered.

That being said, physically attractive people and those who are less fortunate can benefit from some lessons in attraction marketing. The main thing to remember is that you have to learn what attracts people to you. The things that attract people to you in a business situation are almost all things that you can learn.

For example, knowing your product can be quite attractive. Think about how someone would come across if they gave you mixed up and incomprehensible information about their product or business. You would not be inclined to listen to them or anxious to hear more. In other words, you would not be attracted to them. Use attraction marketing by gaining as much product knowledge as you can. Then, when you explain what you have to offer, people will be quite interested in hearing the full story.

To practice good attraction marketing, you must find a way to show your pool of possible customers and associates just how valuable you would be to them. Another way is to study inspirational and motivational ideas. You will gain a powerful positive outlook that people will want to be around and have for their own. This kind of attraction marketing makes you desirable as well as extremely helpful to your down line.

Being up-to-date is another tool of attraction marketing. If you know the latest on all the subjects surrounding your business, people will flock to you to learn the news. They will look to you as a trusted source of information. When they want to know what is going on, they will ask for your time so that you can explain it to them.

Well-practiced attraction marketing can make your life very active. People will look to you as an authority and a source of inspiration. They will be eager to get involved with you because you are someone who knows what you are talking about. Pretty people may have one advantage, but a good knowledge of attraction marketing can allow you to surpass any advantage of physical beauty. Attraction marketing can make you one hot commodity.

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Selasa, 29 September 2009
Digital Signage: How Sticky is Your Content? Part II
Digital signage content is at its best when it's something with which people have a strong attachment.

In other words, effective digital signage content gives its intended audience a reason to take glance, and another and another. Digital signage pages built with stickiness in mind tap into a subconscious longing on the part of a viewer for something that's relevant, interesting and fresh.

The term "sticky" and the concept of "stickiness" as relates to content have come out of the realm of the Worldwide Web, but it's really nothing new. Media of all sorts have used content that's desirable to consumers as a means to build and retain an audience since shortly after Gutenberg began printing Bibles.

The fundamental step towards building stickiness into digital signage content is recognizing one simple fact: Most people in any given society share common interests in some very basic things. For instance, is it going to be hot or cold out today? Sunny or rainy?

Beyond these are topics like news, sports scores, stock market averages and traffic reports that many, but probably not as many as the previous example, find interesting and worthy of frequently checking.

Integrating these sorts of elements into a digital signage page can be powerful. Consider the findings of a recent survey from the National Center for Atmospheric Research of Americans about weather forecasts. Fully 90 percent of American adults said they obtain forecasts daily -many doing so more than three times per day. With that sort of natural stickiness, weather forecasts, conditions and warnings seem like a logical place to start for digital signage content designers looking to attract repeated attention from their audiences.

A weather element built into digital signage pages targeting the general public, such as grocery store shoppers, makes complete sense. But remember, there are other special-interest topics that have as much stickiness to viewers of niche signage. The trick is matching the content to the desired audience's interests to get them to take a second or third look. For example, quotes on soybeans, corn and other commodities wouldn't likely attract a second glance from the general public but would have a high degree of stickiness for farmers visiting a farm implement dealership. Ditto for visitors in the lobby of commodity exchanges.

Thus, the first step to adding stickiness to digital signage content -whether for the general public or a niche audience- is ensuring that it-s relevant to those whom it's directed. The next is making sure the data upon which you're hoping to build stickiness is not static. Remember, creating stickiness taps into the desire of the audience to check back for something new and fresh. Don't waste your time in regards to building stickiness with data that doesn't change.

A third important ingredient to the stickiness recipe is making sure the content you hope your audience finds sticky is available or attainable. What good would it be to design mountaintop weather conditions into digital signage content for a ski shop at the base of the mountain, if it were impossible to set up and maintain the instruments necessary to collect and deliver that data?

Intentionally adding on-screen zones to digital signage content for sticky content that attracts viewers over and over again is a smart strategy. All that's required is making sure the content is relevant to the desired audience, changes often enough to tap into the desire to take another glance and can be obtained from a data provider, collection instrument, via the Web or from some other reliable source. With those pieces in place, building stickiness into digital signage content is doable and a worthwhile endeavor.
Diposkan oleh cahyablog di 06:11 0 komentar
Label: marketing
Senin, 28 September 2009
Setting Up For Attraction Marketing Success
Once you have a solid understanding of what attraction marketing is, the next step is to put it all into action for yourself. To get started, determine if you will do the writing work yourself or if you will hire someone else to do so. For efficiency, and time savings for you, it may be best to hire an inexpensive writer. You can also hire someone to manage the social bookmarking for you. From here, consider the following steps to making the most out of attraction marketing.

Set Up A Blog

Use Wordpress or another blog platform to set up an effective blog. Start posting. It will take some time for the blog to rank in Google and other search engines, but during that time post consistently, once a day being the best, or four to six times a week if possible. Use keywords that are relevant to your topic. Ensure each blog post speaks to another topic informatively without any sales jargon in it.

Socially Bookmark Your Blog Posts

Whenever you post a new blog post, consider doing the following:

* Submit the post to http://Digg.com and http://StumbleUpon.com for social bookmarking. Watch for new sites like these that pop up. * Send out a Tweet on your Twitter account about what you are wrote about and include a link to the blog post. * Send out a message on Facebook about your new blog post inviting others to check it out. Offer a tantalizing tip on why your post is important.

Squidoo

Develop a Squidoo lens on a topic related to the product or service you are selling. This may be a product that simply relates indirectly to yours, but that readers will be interested in. Bookmark your Squidoo lens and be sure to link it back to your blog.

Submit Articles

Article marketing is also an important part of the process of attraction marketing. One or more times per week, submit a well written article to one of the article directories on a topic that relates to the product or service you are selling. Be sure to write a catchy resource box that will instruct your readers on how to tack action (including visiting your website with the link you provided.) You can also invite readers to your blog, if it is not the same as your website.

Create a Video

Be sure to create a how to video or a demonstration video that is related to the topic. This video can be located directly on your blog, but if you want more traffic coming to the blog, a better option is to post the video on http://YouTube.com, or a similar resource. Then, post links to the video on your blog, your Twitter page and other social networks. You should also link your video back to your website or blog so that interested individuals can find it.
Keep the process going. The more successful attraction marketers are those that find consistency in the posting of new blogs, videos, articles and Squidoo pages. Once you get into the hang of it, it will not be difficult to do
Diposkan oleh cahyablog di 06:15 0 komentar
Label: marketing
Minggu, 27 September 2009
Building My Own Website-2 Things the Experts Dont Want You To Know
It wasn't too long ago I started to build my own website. The first thing I did was research how to build my own website. The information I found was pretty discouraging and I almost gave up. If you have decided to build your own website and are discouraged, please read on.

One of the first experts I came across insisted that the first step to building your own site, was buying a domain name. Fortunately I investigated some web hosts and found that most of them give you your domain name free as part of your plan.There is no reason to buy something extra when you get it for free, don't you agree ? The expert was wrong, you should not buy your domain name first. The first step in building your own web site is to get a good web host. The host gives you everything you need to create your site.

Next I read that anyone considering building a website should learn HTML. This alone will slow anyone down and again, its not true. You do not need to know HTML or any other technical skills to build your own site. The best websites today are created with programs known as CMS or Content Management Sytems.These programs make it easy for anyone to create a beautiful and effective website, without HTML or any other programming languages.

The next mistake I made was to try to build my own website for free. I made a free website somewhere, and it was actually harder than many of the real websites I make. I found that with the "free"site, I was very limited in design choices. Also, my website had sponsored ads that weren't mine, all over it. I didn't have a real domain for my site but rather a sub domain. Instead of mysite.com, I had mysite.freehost.com. I began to realize this free website would never look like I wanted, and more importantly never achieve what I wanted.

The formula for creating your own website is amazingly simple:

1. Get a Good Web Host

The host gives you all the tools you need at a dirt cheap price. They are all battling it out for your business and they give you all the best tools and applications to build your own site. I am going to recommend a host that I am currently using with the best deal possible. The host is Justhost. At the time of this writing you can get a great plan with all the bells and whistles for about $40. for a year. This has to be the biggest bargain I've seen in a long time. They even give you credits to advertise on Google and Yahoo that are worth a lot more than the forty dollars.

2.Create Your Own Website with Wordpress

Wordpress makes creating a professional website easy. Wordpress comes with your host plan. Start by picking a theme from thousands of free themes. Then add a post or two. Wordpress will do the rest and turn out a great looking site.You can add posts, photos, videos as you go along. Your basic site could be up in less than an hour, and after a few days of adding content, your website will be very impressive. Now you can look at ways to make money with your website.

That's the basic two steps to creating your own website. I hope you can learn from my mistakes and get started creating your website.
Diposkan oleh cahyablog di 06:16 0 komentar
Label: marketing
Sabtu, 26 September 2009
Acupuncture Can For Weight Loss

Most people find weight loss to be difficult to achieve, especially in the long term and many have tried diets that may reduce some weight only for them to gain weight once again with extra pounds being added. This may be one the reasons why more and more people are turning to acupuncture for weight loss in an effort to handle the weight problem once and for all.

Acupuncture for weight loss treatment involves standard acupuncture practices such as inserting hair-thin needles into selected areas of the body on the skin that are supposed to help the body to function in a proper manner.

Acupuncture causes the body to release endorphins which are the body’s own feel good chemicals that help to relieve pain in the body. Acupuncture for weight loss treatment enables the patient’s body to release endorphins and thus control appetite. When a patient is especially overweight, the acupuncturist may find it necessary to ask a number of questions to ascertain the main cause of the problem. Sometimes it may be due to behavioral patterns or there could be physiological reasons.

No matter what the nature of the problem is, acupuncture for weight loss treatment will consist of the usual insertion of needles into different parts of the body that will help the body to function better and thus induce weight loss. The use of acupuncture for weight loss can best be seen when the acupuncturist attempts to lower the weight of the body through an increase in the output of pituitary gland.

Ideal for Those who have struggled with Other Forms of Weight Loss Regimes

Acupuncture for weight loss also works on the patient by helping him or her reduce their craving for some types of food and it should also encourage the patient to have a smaller appetite. Lowering the insulin levels or lipid levels in the blood through proper needle placements are another way in which acupuncture for weight loss helps the overweight patient.

A positive side of acupuncture for weight loss is that it does not cause any side effects and there is also no chance of the patient becoming addicted because it is a natural means of increasing the patient’s weight loss efforts. The acupuncture for weight loss treatment should be repeated regularly so that its effects are maintained even though such treatment taken on their own may not result in long term and permanent weight loss.

It follows, therefore, that attention is paid to diet as well as exercise and the acupuncturist will surely provide guidelines about what should not be consumed to ensure regular flow of energy right through the entire body. For those who have struggled with weight loss, the acupuncture for weight loss treatment will give their chances of losing weight a big boost.
Diposkan oleh cahyablog di 15:43 0 komentar
Label: news
Jumat, 25 September 2009
Staying Strong After And Through Menopause

Menopause is a time of great change for women. It is a transition that can impact our physical and emotional function, sometimes bringing great challenges. It is also a transition that brings a wealth of wisdom and fulfillment if we take the time to listen within. With some attention to self care and nurturing, this can be a highly rewarding time of life.

Some tips for staying strong through and after menopause:

Spiritual: 1) Take time to stop and meditate at least 5 minutes twice a day for relief from mind chatter and an opportunity to listen within. 2) Acknowledge 5 things you are grateful for each day. This will attract more gratifying things into your life.

Physical: 3) Include exercise in your day, especially an activity like yoga, tai chi or stretching for developing and maintaining strength and flexibility throughout life. 4) Be sure to take vitamin supplements, with special attention to Calcium with D and Magnesium to maintain strong bones.

Mind/Emotions: 5) Connect with healthy support for you: friends, family, a support group, health practitioner and counseling. 6) Educate yourself about the changes you are experiencing through books, seminars, discussions with your health care provider, so you can be proactive about your health.
Diposkan oleh cahyablog di 16:05 0 komentar
Label: news
Kamis, 24 September 2009
Curing Acid Reflux with Your Cupboard
Why is everyone talking about honey and heartburn? You may be surprised that some of the most effective cures for acid reflux could be sitting in your cupboard.

In this article, you will learn a few simple and effective remedies to cure your heartburn naturally.

Honey Cures Heartburn

The most likely cause of your heartburn is a damaged or weak lower esophageal sphincter (LES). The LES is responsible for keeping food and acid in the stomach to digest the food. However, many people’s sphincters do not work like they should.

Because our diets have changed in the last 100 years, many sphincters are not working properly. That explains the sky rocketed cases of acid reflux. But antacids that neutralize the stomach acid are doing nothing for curing the cause of this disease.

But honey can cure the sphincter. Honey has long been touted as a healer of the skin or tissue. For centuries, honey has been a natural remedy for cuts. And honey can work to heal and strengthen the sphincter.

You should immediately buy a quality honey at your grocery store and begin sucking on 3 teaspoons daily.

How Else Can you do to Cure Acid Reflux?

1. Begin eating a red apple whenever you feel an attack coming on.

2. Drink water after every meal or snack to clean off the sphincter. This could create a tight seal over the stomach.

3. Eat softer foods while you are curing your reflux. Crunchy foods scratch the sphincter.

4. Avoid spicy foods, alcohol and carbonated beverages until you cure your heartburn.

5. Educate yourself on the most effective home treatments available.

Curing Acid Reflux

Learn how to cure acid reflux by tomorrow with a 100% guaranteed remedy report that uses the top research studies combined into a step by step remedy.

With one trip to the grocery store, you could be cured in 24 hours or less with no antacids!

Curing Acid Reflux

Joe Barton and Barton Publishing promise to teach you how to cure acid reflux in 24 hours. If you enjoyed these honey and heartburn remedies, you will love this GERD Remedy Report.
Diposkan oleh cahyablog di 16:06 0 komentar
Label: news
Rabu, 23 September 2009
Insomnia Help-Natural Remedies versus Pills
Both natural remedies and sleeping pills undoubtedly works for those who seek help for their insomnia issues, but which among the two can really bring you the most desirable effect?

Sleeping pills and sleeping aids have long been used by insomniacs to give them immediate relief from not being able to sleep. Over the years, sleeping pills and sleeping aids have provided help by giving those who have insomnia a chance to experience sleep like normal people do. Popping a pill is all you need to have a good night’s sleep. However, immediate effect, ease of use, and a guarantee that you will have the sleep that you need comes with a price.

Just like any medications, sleeping pills have undesirable side effects such as drowsiness, dizziness, clumsiness, and headache among many others. Aside from side effects, you may also develop drug dependence, tolerance from the drug, and withdrawal symptoms. Even more, studies have shown that there is a possibility that your insomnia can become worse if you stop your medication. Sleeping pills can also mask an underlying problem that if treated may provide more relief from insomnia. Sleeping pills provide immediate help for insomnia, but is it worth the negative effects?

Natural remedies however have no side effects and provide a long term to a permanent help for insomnia. It may take awhile to feel the effects and it requires some dedication on your part but the effects are of much higher quality, side effect-free, and long-lasting, unlike the short-term effect of pills. Some common natural remedies that can help with your insomnia issues are proper sleep hygiene, sleep rituals, relaxation therapy, stimulus control, and stress-reducing techniques. There are other techniques which you have not probably heard of but also as effective as the common ones. Candida cleanse, liver cleanse, calcium and magnesium supplements, and use of extra virgin coconut oil are among the few.

Sleeping pills are used for short term only. They are not meant to be used as the ultimate help for insomnia problems. They make you sleep, period. It doesn’t matter if you are using pills to help you sleep, you are still an insomniac. Natural remedies on the other hand target the core problems which cause your insomnia, curing you as a result.

Sleep is crucial. Insomnia is a gross feeder. It will nourish itself on any kind of thinking; including thinking about not thinking. Get rid of your insomnia now and have control over your sleep.
Diposkan oleh cahyablog di 12:40 0 komentar
Label: news
Selasa, 22 September 2009
How To Make Money Online - Free Video Course From A - Z
Do you have what it takes to make money online? There are several ways to make money online and none that I know of can make you rich in a couple weeks. It took me years to figure out how to turn a profit and to stop believing all the hype out there from internet marketing "gurus". It takes a lot of hard work and dedication to make it online, but it is entirely possible.

One of the main reasons people don't make it online is because they don't follow a successful blueprint. If you knew someone making tons of money on the internet, would you listen to them and do exactly what they were doing? Or would you buy some ebook and follow that guy promsing to make you rich? Hopefully, you would follow your friend who is already an online money making success story and would give you real advice that works.

I have found that the easiest ways to make money online involve selling your own product or someone elses product. You know, affiliate marketing. There is a regimen I follow every single time with every webiste I make. Why? Because it works and "if it ain't broke don't fix it"!

I also stay away from ppc marketing. It is very costly and I find that organic traffic converts to better sales, plus it's free! Your costs involve a domain name and hosting, which can be less than $10. Using a Wordpress Blog, I can usually get it indexed in Google in a couple hours and start driving traffic to it using articles, free blogs, videos, and more right away. This works until the site itself is ranking on the first page of Google getting steady, free traffic and makes consistent sales.

The key to success is picking the right product to promote (if you do not have your own) and choosing the right keywords that:

A. Get good amounts of monthly traffic
B. Do not have so much competition that it will take you years to get traffic.

I like to get my sites in the top 3 of Google within a month.

This is not that hard to do and luckily you can view exactly how I do this. Yes, view it! It's a free video series that teaches you how to find a product, pick your domain name, make a website, get it indexed fast and start driving traffic to it.

Just visit Free Online Video Course and you'll be watching the video's in no time!

Just remember, this is work. You can get started in your spare time and slowly build up a network of different websites until you are making enough money to support yourself.

Pick one thing at a time and make it work before you jump around to something else! If you pick a weight loss product, stick to it until you are making sales. Don't give up after a week and try something else! Once you are making sales, total them up and figure out how much money that is a month. Ok, you just made $350 off one website in a month. That's a car payment. Now, make another site and pay off some more bills each month until you have everything paid from your online income. This is how I was able to become a success at making money online.
Diposkan oleh cahyablog di 12:55 0 komentar
Label: internet
Senin, 21 September 2009
Natural Dandruff Remedy

If you are looking for a dandruff remedy, you are not alone. Dandruff is a common problem that can be solved with ease with some natural remedies. What are you going to do when your dandruff is gone? Dark clothing will no longer cause you any embarrassment any more. Keep reading to find out about some natural remedies.

If you thing you are going to try a natural remedy for dandruff, you need to think with an open mind. Many natural remedies are available at present. You have many options. Lemon juice, white vinegar, cider vinegar, olive oil, and tea tree oil are just a few of the natural dandruff remedies available.

The lemon juice and vinegars can be put in a spray bottle an sprayed on. Or you can put them in a bowl and sponge them over your scalp. Some people use them as a final rinse after washing their hair. Try one of these a few times a week to see if it helps. You might be surprised at the results.

The oils should be massaged into the scalp. You can also mix oils with shampoo for an invigorating experience. Some people try other things from their house like milk, jelly, eggs, etc.

If handled with care, dandruff can be cured with ease. Dandruff is not really a big problem. But, it is a common problem with your scalp. Using the proper dandruff remedy, you can rid yourself of this stubborn dandruff problem. Then you can wear your best black outfits again without embarrassment.
Diposkan oleh cahyablog di 14:48 0 komentar
Label: news
Minggu, 20 September 2009
Knowledge on Computer Online

Tech savvy and tech savvy wannabes alike can now learn more and more even at the comforts of their homes and couches. Those who already have a bachelor’s degree in computer or Information Technology related courses can further expand their expertise with an ease through a higher computer course online. Similarly, non-IT professionals or career people who are in need of basic or advance IT training constrained by distance or busy schedule can opt for the online education option.

Working in an IT-based or IT-intertwined company means continuous upgrading, learning, and exposure to the latest trends and knowledge on computer technology and all its related facets. In the IT world, innovation, competency, and modernity are essential for survival and longevity. With the advent of more sophisticated internet, expanding skills and competencies in information technology has become easier and more constraints-sensitive. An online computer course is now just clicks of a computer away.

For those who have just stepped inside the world of information technology, a number of beginner’s courses are available. Starters usually have to begin learning various computer programs and applications. Many software and computer companies, like Linux, are now offering online computer training and programming courses. For *Microsoft applications*, training courses on Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows 2000, MS Project, MS Office 97, MS Office 2000, Windows operating systems basic, and Windows NT Workstation are mostly taken up by beginners. MAC OS9 and MAC troubleshooting training courses are the ones mostly sought by MAC starters. These online training courses mostly come in packages priced based on extensiveness and promotions campaign by the manufacturers.

Web design, web development, web management, web graphics and animation training, HTML courses, and many others are available for people already equipped with basic computer applications training. For more advanced IT enthusiasts, online training and full-blown computer courses are also abundant. There are online courses on telecommunications, technology and security, search engine positioning, wireless technology, networking, systems design, and systems management.

In a more complex note, there is already an online course on computer forensics. The high-tech Crime Network now has an online training center providing computer forensic training. The training program is especially intended and designed for professionals in the field of network administration, IS and MIS specialization, auditing, investigation, and fraud examinations. The program trains them in handling computer sources that potentially contain pieces of evidence and pertinent data pertinent to the cases they are handling.

The computer forensic training course trains a forensic person in recovering, retrieving, and analyzing data from disk operating systems, Windows operating system (with concentration on Windows 9.x), and even from NTFS structures used by Windows NT, 2000, and XP operating systems. Data gathered from these sources are then studied for their potential use in legal investigations or even court hearings and other investigative proceedings.

The program is very time-flexible, giving its students enough time to fully comprehend the principles and procedures of modern forensics method. It is also lenient in terms of workshops and practical applications, allowing the trainer and trainee to have more time in digesting the data at hand. The program allows the students to proceed to the next level of training in the time most convenient for their schedules.

The program employs advance methodologies in forensic investigation like recovery of pieces of evidence from a magnetic source and transforming these raw data into accurate translations. This is followed by practical exercises on data presentation and analysis. These exercises are aimed at training the students in conducting sterile examination on various media, creation of forensic boot storage devices, replication of various media into forensic forms, and recovery of erased, altered, hidden, and even lost data. The exercises prepare a student to learn unlocking passwords, formatting data, accessing mail, and other private web-based information storage media, collating internet related files and cookies.

For about four months or so, a student in this program will be able to formulate sound analysis on technology-based pieces of evidence. Graduates of this program are expected to aid in more expedient and accurate investigations of hard-to-solve frauds and felonies. This program boasts of a partnership with Kennesaw State University.
Diposkan oleh cahyablog di 05:53 0 komentar
Label: news
Sabtu, 19 September 2009
Acupuncture Can For Weight Loss

Most people find weight loss to be difficult to achieve, especially in the long term and many have tried diets that may reduce some weight only for them to gain weight once again with extra pounds being added. This may be one the reasons why more and more people are turning to acupuncture for weight loss in an effort to handle the weight problem once and for all.

Acupuncture for weight loss treatment involves standard acupuncture practices such as inserting hair-thin needles into selected areas of the body on the skin that are supposed to help the body to function in a proper manner.

Acupuncture causes the body to release endorphins which are the body’s own feel good chemicals that help to relieve pain in the body. Acupuncture for weight loss treatment enables the patient’s body to release endorphins and thus control appetite. When a patient is especially overweight, the acupuncturist may find it necessary to ask a number of questions to ascertain the main cause of the problem. Sometimes it may be due to behavioral patterns or there could be physiological reasons.

No matter what the nature of the problem is, acupuncture for weight loss treatment will consist of the usual insertion of needles into different parts of the body that will help the body to function better and thus induce weight loss. The use of acupuncture for weight loss can best be seen when the acupuncturist attempts to lower the weight of the body through an increase in the output of pituitary gland.

Ideal for Those who have struggled with Other Forms of Weight Loss Regimes

Acupuncture for weight loss also works on the patient by helping him or her reduce their craving for some types of food and it should also encourage the patient to have a smaller appetite. Lowering the insulin levels or lipid levels in the blood through proper needle placements are another way in which acupuncture for weight loss helps the overweight patient.

A positive side of acupuncture for weight loss is that it does not cause any side effects and there is also no chance of the patient becoming addicted because it is a natural means of increasing the patient’s weight loss efforts. The acupuncture for weight loss treatment should be repeated regularly so that its effects are maintained even though such treatment taken on their own may not result in long term and permanent weight loss.

It follows, therefore, that attention is paid to diet as well as exercise and the acupuncturist will surely provide guidelines about what should not be consumed to ensure regular flow of energy right through the entire body. For those who have struggled with weight loss, the acupuncture for weight loss treatment will give their chances of losing weight a big boost.
Diposkan oleh cahyablog di 05:54 0 komentar
Label: news
Jumat, 18 September 2009
Yeast Infection Treatments
You can try many yeast infection cures today as they vary from over-the-counter drugs like Monistat to quick natural remedies or more complex ones like homeopathic cures.

For mild yeast infection the yeast infection natural treatments are the best approach. The best known homemade remedies are apple-cider vinegar and yogurt.

Apple-cider vinegar is widely used to cure itchiness and burning due to candidiasis. You are not allowed to use or consume other kind of vinegar because they are not alkaline, so it will actually feed the fungus yeast. Hence, it will make the matter even worse. You can take douching with water and vinegar daily or as often as you may feel needed. In two, three days you should feel the relief from yeast infection.

Yogurt, the non-sweet type, is very useful in the battle with vaginal yeast infections and severe candida albicans. For getting rid of itchiness, rashes, burning caused by yeast, you can apply the yogurt on the affected areas. I know it is quite messy, but the results are really worth it. For chronic yeast infection you have to eat yogurt daily to restore your bacteria balance in your body and reduce the yeast fungus. Also, is very effective in preventing the disease during an antibiotic treatment.

Cheekweed ointment, if you are lucky to find it on your local store, is very effective in getting rid of symptoms of vaginal infections. It is a very powerful anti-fungal herb, so you should use it as soon as you get it. Another good anti-fungal is tea tree oil. Be careful to dilute it with water though.

Other natural yeast infection treatments include changing your diet completely by eliminating the foods that cause the yeast fungus growth and for a more severe candida albicans, the best approach is a holistic one. There are numerous herbs and teas which combined with regular exercise and anti-candida diets can get rid of yeast infection for good.
Diposkan oleh cahyablog di 05:55 0 komentar
Label: news
Kamis, 17 September 2009
Soft loan to personal loan

If you want a soft loan for the purpose of buying a car with a loan, should the bank or leasing, there is a possibility you will be faced with a high interest loan, for that you should be careful in choosing leasing company, in this case there is a give PERSONAL LOAN benefit form the interest rate is low, competitive, lightening installment

The personal loans can also be used for those who plan to buy a house, home repair, car repair, buying aircraft, aircraft maintenance, purchase and also if you want a party married, honey moon party, personal loans etc you can also use as a personal loan highly profitable because flexible addition, low interest rates and repayment of light.

So if you want loan with a low interest rate, the time period and plafond that you can set yourself, to the immediate use personal loans for all financial needs of your needs, your home, purchase of furniture, etc.

Or if you are interested loan capital to open a particular business, you can also take advantage of personal loans as an alternative credit you, because by using the soft loan is blessing you can be much greater, because the benefits of soft loans, you can manage your business so that the rotation money you can rotate faster than your debt acquaintances.
Diposkan oleh cahyablog di 05:58 0 komentar
Label: history
Rabu, 16 September 2009
Word of Mouth Marketing

If you are involved in business, then you should know that advertising and marketing isn’t only about appealing to customers. It’s about keeping them satisfied and actually maintaining a relationship with them. This is one of the most vital steps in any marketing strategy, yet one of the most overlooked.

A business can be successful, but could also hit the proverbial plateau. To produce a growing business, customers have to be happy with the business and continue to come back. Did you know that on average, a happy customer will tell only 3 to 5 people about their experience? Whereas an unhappy customer will tell up to 15 people! You do the math.

Growth of a business heavily relies on having a strong, respectable reputation. When someone has worked with an employee or representative from your business, their experience will be shared with colleagues, family, and friends. It is crucial that all interaction with clients and customers be positive in order to create a credible name for your business. For instance, think back to a time where you had a less than enjoyable encounter with a business. How were you treated? What was it about that company that was frustrating? Undoubtedly, the customer service had something to do with it. This scenario has happened countless times with numerous companies, simply because of poor communication. Sometimes all a person wants is for the responsible party to admit fault, apologize, and attempt to correct the problem.

A surefire way to avoid this problem is to implement (and actually adhere to) a system. The system should start with addressing recurring problem and identifying any issues that occur on a regular basis. This is obviously a major restriction for the company’s growth. In all reality, there will never be a perfect business where everything goes as planned and runs smoothly. Then again, it is the efforts made once a problem occurs that shows true professionalism and praiseworthy consumerism. When your company or business is not focusing on the repeating problems, it’s a time bomb waiting to detonate. The system should involve a respectable protocol and employees should understand the objective.

Complaints are inherently a part of any business. You can not make everyone happy, period. However, trying to prevent problems before they happen can make a world of difference in your company. Handle these problems courteously and you should begin to see major changes. Here is a basic rundown and proven course of action to ensure the satisfaction of companies and customers alike:

* Recognize the customer’s irritation: “I understand that you are upset”
* Convey your concern: “I’m glad that you have brought this problem to our attention and I’m sorry you have had to deal with this”
* Guarantee your help: “I’m going to help you resolve this issue”
* Acknowledge what they want to happen: “What can we do to compensate”
* Ensure the problem is resolved or make an equivalent offer: “Unfortunately we can’t do that according to our agreement, but we can…” or “We appreciate your time and want to keep you as a customer, we are more than happy to fulfill your request”

On some occasions, the situation might call for additional measures to be taken. Including a bonus or possible free shipping would be a generous contribution and is sure to be pleasing. Of course there will be some cases where the customer is still not happy. Occasionally a person will be entirely inappropriate and unsatisfied no matter what you do. Unrelated frustrations can easily be taken out on customer service representatives. This is simply unacceptable and the employee has the right to decline their request.

You will also want to be conscientious of your employees. Your team should be introduced to this ’system’ as soon as possible. Collaborate with employees and this process can be modified to suit your company’s personal culture. As long as the overall goal is understood and accepted, major issues can begin to unravel. A log of each complaint should be created in order to make improvements. This is the only way to properly track particular issues and have them reviewed. Regular meetings will also help with the implementation and execution. With customer satisfaction as your main goal, everyone should be eager to take part in the ‘magic’ marketing strategy. This is an incredibly easy way to enable your company’s growth and secure a solid reputation.
Diposkan oleh cahyablog di 06:01 0 komentar
Label: costumer service
Selasa, 15 September 2009
Knowledge on Computer Online

Tech savvy and tech savvy wannabes alike can now learn more and more even at the comforts of their homes and couches. Those who already have a bachelor’s degree in computer or Information Technology related courses can further expand their expertise with an ease through a higher computer course online. Similarly, non-IT professionals or career people who are in need of basic or advance IT training constrained by distance or busy schedule can opt for the online education option.

Working in an IT-based or IT-intertwined company means continuous upgrading, learning, and exposure to the latest trends and knowledge on computer technology and all its related facets. In the IT world, innovation, competency, and modernity are essential for survival and longevity. With the advent of more sophisticated internet, expanding skills and competencies in information technology has become easier and more constraints-sensitive. An online computer course is now just clicks of a computer away.

For those who have just stepped inside the world of information technology, a number of beginner’s courses are available. Starters usually have to begin learning various computer programs and applications. Many software and computer companies, like Linux, are now offering online computer training and programming courses. For *Microsoft applications*, training courses on Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows 2000, MS Project, MS Office 97, MS Office 2000, Windows operating systems basic, and Windows NT Workstation are mostly taken up by beginners. MAC OS9 and MAC troubleshooting training courses are the ones mostly sought by MAC starters. These online training courses mostly come in packages priced based on extensiveness and promotions campaign by the manufacturers.

Web design, web development, web management, web graphics and animation training, HTML courses, and many others are available for people already equipped with basic computer applications training. For more advanced IT enthusiasts, online training and full-blown computer courses are also abundant. There are online courses on telecommunications, technology and security, search engine positioning, wireless technology, networking, systems design, and systems management.

In a more complex note, there is already an online course on computer forensics. The high-tech Crime Network now has an online training center providing computer forensic training. The training program is especially intended and designed for professionals in the field of network administration, IS and MIS specialization, auditing, investigation, and fraud examinations. The program trains them in handling computer sources that potentially contain pieces of evidence and pertinent data pertinent to the cases they are handling.

The computer forensic training course trains a forensic person in recovering, retrieving, and analyzing data from disk operating systems, Windows operating system (with concentration on Windows 9.x), and even from NTFS structures used by Windows NT, 2000, and XP operating systems. Data gathered from these sources are then studied for their potential use in legal investigations or even court hearings and other investigative proceedings.

The program is very time-flexible, giving its students enough time to fully comprehend the principles and procedures of modern forensics method. It is also lenient in terms of workshops and practical applications, allowing the trainer and trainee to have more time in digesting the data at hand. The program allows the students to proceed to the next level of training in the time most convenient for their schedules.

The program employs advance methodologies in forensic investigation like recovery of pieces of evidence from a magnetic source and transforming these raw data into accurate translations. This is followed by practical exercises on data presentation and analysis. These exercises are aimed at training the students in conducting sterile examination on various media, creation of forensic boot storage devices, replication of various media into forensic forms, and recovery of erased, altered, hidden, and even lost data. The exercises prepare a student to learn unlocking passwords, formatting data, accessing mail, and other private web-based information storage media, collating internet related files and cookies.

For about four months or so, a student in this program will be able to formulate sound analysis on technology-based pieces of evidence. Graduates of this program are expected to aid in more expedient and accurate investigations of hard-to-solve frauds and felonies. This program boasts of a partnership with Kennesaw State University.
Diposkan oleh cahyablog di 06:03 0 komentar
Label: education
Senin, 14 September 2009
Yeast Infection Treatments
You can try many yeast infection cures today as they vary from over-the-counter drugs like Monistat to quick natural remedies or more complex ones like homeopathic cures.

For mild yeast infection the yeast infection natural treatments are the best approach. The best known homemade remedies are apple-cider vinegar and yogurt.

Apple-cider vinegar is widely used to cure itchiness and burning due to candidiasis. You are not allowed to use or consume other kind of vinegar because they are not alkaline, so it will actually feed the fungus yeast. Hence, it will make the matter even worse. You can take douching with water and vinegar daily or as often as you may feel needed. In two, three days you should feel the relief from yeast infection.

Yogurt, the non-sweet type, is very useful in the battle with vaginal yeast infections and severe candida albicans. For getting rid of itchiness, rashes, burning caused by yeast, you can apply the yogurt on the affected areas. I know it is quite messy, but the results are really worth it. For chronic yeast infection you have to eat yogurt daily to restore your bacteria balance in your body and reduce the yeast fungus. Also, is very effective in preventing the disease during an antibiotic treatment.

Cheekweed ointment, if you are lucky to find it on your local store, is very effective in getting rid of symptoms of vaginal infections. It is a very powerful anti-fungal herb, so you should use it as soon as you get it. Another good anti-fungal is tea tree oil. Be careful to dilute it with water though.

Other natural yeast infection treatments include changing your diet completely by eliminating the foods that cause the yeast fungus growth and for a more severe candida albicans, the best approach is a holistic one. There are numerous herbs and teas which combined with regular exercise and anti-candida diets can get rid of yeast infection for good.
Diposkan oleh cahyablog di 06:19 0 komentar
Label: news
Minggu, 13 September 2009
How to Unblock Blocked Ear
Don’t waste your time searching for methods how to unblock blocked ears all over the internet any longer. The ways how to unblock blocked ear described on the internet as free tips from regular public and the methods described in the forums do not work and some of them will even cause you ear infections. The best ways to unblock your ears is by sticking to the methods that have being proven to work for decades and are safe to perform from the comfort of your own home.

There are indeed a lot of ways how to unblock blocked ear that I will share with you, I have tried different methods to unblock my ears over the time and I now know what works best for me and will work just as well for you also! You do not need to see a doctor to have your ears unblocked, just follow a couple of simple steps that work for me and you will know how to unblock blocked ear yourself.

Natural Methods To Unblock Blocked Ears

I am going to describe one of the methods to help you unblock your ear that works well for me.

* Try using your jaw muscles and open your mouth as wide as you possibly can, this slightly stretches the sinuses open and helps release some of the pressure from your ear. Do not stick those cotton tip ear cleaners in your ears to try and clear out the ear wax, this will push the ear wax a lot deeper in your ear and will cause you a lot more trouble that can later develop in to an infection.

There is a saying, do not stick anything smaller than your elbow in your ear! Obviously this means that do not stick anything in your ears, this is the wrong way to clean out the ear wax and trying to unblock your ears. There are certain methods you should use to unblock your ears safely and they are definitely not by sticking things in your ear to try and unblock it.
Diposkan oleh cahyablog di 06:20 0 komentar
Label: news
Sabtu, 12 September 2009
Magnetic Energy a Future Alternate Power Source
Magnetic energy has been existing our a universe since the creation of time it is so profound yet so subtle that many of us are not aware of it's presents. If it wasn't for the magnetic power of the earths gravitational force we would go floating off into outer space like wise if no gravitational magnetic force was induced on the planets of our solar system the planets would go whirling off into the universe. What a mess!

On a smaller but not less significant level we look at a plain magnet, it is very attention-grabbing to observe that this magnet has a perpetual uniform never-ending potential energy inside its magnetic field as either attraction or repulsion based off the north and south poles. This is substantiated by Isaac Newton's first law of mechanics stating that an object will continue in movement or (lack thereo)f and stay in movement unless an extra force acts upon it.

Magnets in and of themselves do not generate mechanical energy from a static position however if we were to take a magnet and set it in motion with kinetic energy and pass it through a electrically charged field or electromagnetic field we would discover that direct current electricity would be produced. For example a magnet in motion passing over an electromagnetic coil of wire's would induce a DC electrical current, at the same time as the magnet finishes departing the electromagnetic coil the magnet is pushed away. Thus if we comprise a series of magnets on a wheel or rotor the next magnet would move toward in above the coil and generate the same effect which we call a pulse of DC electricity therefore the phrase electromagnetic pulse generator is often used. Magnetic motors or generators bear several advantages above other renewable sources of energy for instance there is no environmental hazards or toxic wastes such as seen with fossil fuels and nuclear power plants and although solar panel technology is as well cutting edge, a magnetic generator does not take up virtually as much area and has a very low maintenance requirement. In modern era technology has permitted the magnetic generator to generate more DC electricity than previously thought since this total principle is not consistent with the law of thermodynamics in the past and is the cause of contraversy today. This direct current electricity is subsequently converted to an alternating current or AC electricity through the aid of a power inverter which makes it viable to be used for everyday household appliances. Moreover building a magnetic generator or magnetic motor have allowed many individuals who have taken the time to build such devices to enjoy the profit of reducing on grid electrical bills and in many instances total households leaving completely off grid and becoming free from the local power company. To build a magnetic generator is quite uncomplicated and up until modern times it has been under rated as an alternate source of renewable energy.
Diposkan oleh cahyablog di 09:38 0 komentar
Label: entertainment
Jumat, 11 September 2009
10 Best Love Songs
It's never easy to write up a list of the 10 best love songs of all time.

Another thing that has affected the 10 songs I've chosen is the fact that my tastes and preferences have changed ever since I came up with that top 30 list. In fact, you will find that 3 of the songs featured in this list didn't even make the cut in the original top 30 ballads list.

So believe me, when I say, that these are my current Top 10 Love Songs, at the time of writing this post. I expect to change again in the future, although probably not so drastically.

It must be remembered that this top 10 list is in no particular order.

1. Everything I Do (I Do For You) - Bryan Adams

One of the biggest ballads of the 90s, "Everything I Do" is up there in many people's list of the best love songs ever composed. It is the most modern original composition in this Top 10 Love Songs list, making it even more special and unique. Easily Bryan Adam's biggest hit in terms of commercial success, this continues to be a favorite at weddings.

2. Hard To Say I'm Sorry - Chicago

Peter Cetera's voice is almost inseparable from this classic love song. This was the song that revived the fortunes of Chicago after a commercial slump in the late 70s and the early part of the 80s. This is probably the one song that will forever remain in my Top 10 Love Songs list and probably yours too.

3. I Will Always Love You - Whitney Houston

Few songs have such a vocal performance as powerful and as memorable as this song. Originally a country song from Dolly Parton, Whitney Houston remade the song completely, so much so, that it is considered to be her song, rather than Dolly's. The fact that it was part of a successful film The Bodyguard, guaranteed the success of this song.

4. Unchained Melody - Righteous Brothers

It shouldn't come as a surprise that this is one of the most recorded songs of the 20th century. While originally recorded and released in 1965, its popularity with modern audiences is due to its inclusion in the 1990 hit movie Ghost. Old fashioned and traditional, yet sincere and timeless.

5. Don't Know Much - Linda Ronstadt & Aaron Neville

Don't Know Much is one of the simplest yet one of the most powerful love songs ever made. It explores how people may not be sure about a lot of things in life yet the one thing that they're always sure about is that they are in love with their partner. This is the song I would play at a first dance at a wedding. Certainly deserves its place in the Top 10 Love Songs list.

6. Endless Love - Diana Ross & Lionel Ritchie

Probably the most well-known ballad of the 80s, it is about 2 lovers that declare their complete, limitless and eternal love to one another. It continues to be in high rotation on adult contemporary radio stations as well as at weddings. While the song was successfully remade by Mariah Carey and Luther Vandross, it doesn't top the original in my opinion.

7. Close To You - The Carpenters

More often than not, this is my most favorite love song of all time and deserving of a place in this Top 10 Love Songs list. But that's probably because I'm a big fan of The Carpenters and simply adore Karen Carpenter. I haven't been able to find another song that is sweeter, simpler and more beautiful. The lyrics are touching. The arrangement is perfect. The voice is certainly from above. A timeless classic.

8. It Must Have Been Love - Roxette

This song always reminds me of the movie Pretty Woman and the scene where it is played. It is played as Vivian (played by Julia Roberts) is leaving Edward (Richard Gere) for what appears to be the last time. The lyrics of the song explain that all that she has gone through with Edward "must have been love" even though it looks to have ended.

9. Waiting For A Girl Like You - Foreigner

You may be surprised to find that I've chosen this song in this Top 10 Love Songs list instead of Foreigner's other big hit, I Wanna Know What Love Is, which is generally considered to be their best ballad. All I can say is that this is one of the songs currently going through my head, for many different reasons. Nevertheless, it is a wonderful song, often overshadowed by their other hit. An interesting fact is that this song spent a record 10 weeks at number 2 on the US charts without ever reaching number 1.

10. Sara - Starship

Easily my favorite power ballad of all time, 2 ingredients make this song both powerful and memorable. Firstly, the emotive lyrics demonstrate the rollercoaster that relationships can be especially when they end. Secondly, lead singer Mickey Thomas' vocal performance is very genuine and combined with the great lyrics creates something that tugs the heart.

There is a good chance that I will go back and update this list before the end of the year. If I don't, please remind me to do so. You may not agree with some of my choices, but I hope that this is a relatively good list of the Top 10 Love Songs.
Diposkan oleh cahyablog di 09:40 0 komentar
Label: entertainment
Kamis, 10 September 2009
All about RTG Casino Online Bonus Codes
Before you play at RealTime Gaming (RTG) casinos, it pays to know all about RTG bonus codes. After all, you do want to take advantage of these great opportunities to earn more money with free money. Plus, when it comes to freebies in this world, it is to your best interests to take advantage of them especially when these advance your own personal interests!

RTG bonus codes are used to claim bonuses that are provided on a regular basis by RTG casinos. You receive these bonuses as rewards for being a regular and loyal player, a feature not often found in offline casinos.

Types of Bonuses

AT RTG casinos, you can avail of many types of bonuses. With each bonus, you will feel more compelled, more encouraged and more motivated to play, to win and to be richer. It is a positive cycle that you will want to be part of.

You can take advantage of new player/welcome bonus, match promotions, game specific bonuses and comp offers. Depending on the type of bonus, you must either register for it or become eligible without actively registering for it. For example, in a welcome bonus with deposit, you have to register with the online casino to avail of a specific dollar amount for every deposit made. Another example, if you play in any of the online casino games, you are automatically entitled to the comp bonus offers.

These bonuses can either be expressed in a certain percentage or in a specific amount. For example, when you deposit $100, you will receive a 50 percent bonus, thus, adding up to $150.

Steps to Claim Bonuses

Well, of course, you have to be a registered member of the online casino before you can avail of the RTG bonuses and be eligible for said bonuses. Bonus coupon codes are usually advertised in the online casino itself and through newsletters and e-mail alerts so it is always best to check in to your account and visit the website just to be sure that you can take advantage of bonuses as these come.

To redeem your bonus coupons, you just click on the appropriate logo/icon to log in, click on the "Bank" and then "Redeem Coupon" icons. Keep in mind that RTG bonus codes are case sensitive. You can then make your deposit, if it is required, leave the bank and start playing!

Applicable Rules of the Bonuses

There are rules to be followed when it comes to RTG bonus codes. These will usually vary from one RTG online casino to the next but the following rules are common to almost every one of them:

* Only one bonus amount is allowed for every account, every family, every household and every computer. The RTG software will detect any violations of this rule and will act accordingly. * Your casino account must have a valid e-mail address and telephone number before the bonus codes can be availed of.

Just be sure to read the terms and conditions of the RTG bonus codes at these apply to the specific RTG casino. This way, you can take full advantage of said bonus codes.

Indeed, when you know all about RTG bonus codes, your online gaming experience becomes more exciting, more profitable and more fun!
Diposkan oleh cahyablog di 09:41 0 komentar
Label: entertainment
Rabu, 09 September 2009
Studying or sightseeing

Both can be found on the Study in Cyprus, because you can get the Study Abroad Programs, Study Abroad with facilities to understand the culture, art, language, and the holiday in the country, so you want to be on vacation while learning and learning while on holiday can be get here
You can also [...]
Diposkan oleh cahyablog di 20:56 0 komentar
Label: education
Selasa, 08 September 2009
Watching Internet Tv - A Guide to Beginners

In the busy world that we live in, people seem to have lesser & lesser time to spend on watching their favorite TV shows. This has made the Internet TV business to flourish in accordance with the ever increasing demand of the tech-savvy public. This article will tell you all you need to know about watching TV online.

What is required?

Now, the best thing about watching TV online is its simplicity. There is no hassle of wires getting interchanged & the whole setting up process can be accomplished in a matter of minutes. All that it takes is a simple Internet connection. The next step would be to ensure that your computer has good hardware. As long as you are able see other videos properly, this should not be much of a problem.

Why Internet TV?

The main advantage is portability. This is comparable to asking why it's better to use a laptop instead of a PC. You can watch TV when on the go as long as you are connected to the Internet. The other reason is cost. Internet TV can be a great way to save money since it can cut the monthly payment for cable. The last & the most important reason is that it is geographically compatible. Irrespective of where in the world you stay, you can watch your favorite TV Channels from all the countries. Also, if needed, you can sync the CPU with your TV set with the help of special software & watch it on the TV screen rather than on the monitor.

Okay, so how do I watch TV on the Internet?

You can check out an exclusive review on some of the best Internet TV sites in my blog. I have been monitoring the growth of Internet TV sites over the past couple of years & have come up with a ranking. The 2 options you have are free & paid services. The free ones as with other free services have a lot of viewers & hence popular channels like ESPN, Fashion TV, NBC etc. aren't aired & those that do are sometimes illegal or have very bad video quality. So, the best bet would be to go for the paid ones. You even get amazing bonuses for signing up such as unlimited movie downloads, etc. Concluding, watching TV online has become the latest craze among netizens & one day, maybe, the "idiot box" will become an obsolete design.
Diposkan oleh cahyablog di 09:46 0 komentar
Label: entertainment
Senin, 07 September 2009
Northrend Leveling Guide - Fast WOW Leveling From 70 to 80
Rage of the Lich King is one of the most enthralling world of warcreft release. There are new sections, death knight, combat grounds and ten new levels to pound your way through. What's the best and smoothest way in leveling from 70-80? The quickest way to level up is thru doing quests, and the challenge is to find the swiftest way to do the bulk of the search in the least achievable period of time. This implies that getting and finding the speediest route available. This is a fair playing ground for all role players to be in the same playing field. Simply due to beta servers, there are dozens of warcraft players that handled to experience Wrath of the Lich King before the rest. They have an edge in being acquainted with the new sectors, new dungeons, and lots more. Those that get to the cap of eighty quickly will find themselves alone in the last research example and type raids, and they'll be reaping all the rewards.

What's the fastest way to level from 70-80? Not very much has changed in this arena. The swiftest way to level will remain thru quests.

Ideally there should be a fair playing ground in this regard, but due to the BETA servers, where participants were permitted to test out the new game, Many Another Warcraft players managed to experience the game well before the rest and will have an edge in leveling and familiarity with the new terrain. So while questing remains the perfect strategy for leveling in Warcreft the trick will be finding a technique to level the field again. This leads on to our next query : Which, if any, Warcraft leveling guide 70-80 should you buy? There are at the current time 4 guides who have solidified their places as leaders in the industries. Just when you hear Zygor Guides or Team iDemise or Kopp's leveling guide and Joana's World leveling guide, you know that these are the reference from the best players. While each leveling guide offers key tips, strategies and the guarantee of trimming hours on hours of playtime off your seek to level from 70-80, or 1-80 if that be the situation, do they really measure up to the hype? In short yes, in long yes, bottom line-yes. With no doubt any of these 70-80 leveling guides will provide you with the tools to level the field again and in many cases should let you pass even those Warcraft players with previous knowledge of the Northrend.

Of the four top leveling guides every one of them offer map mods, while some offer varying degree's of functionality and detail all of them should deliver. There are even some among them that already have Deathknight builds and search maps and aides to help level your Deathknight quicker, even through their beginning level sections. The solution to the problem of Which Warcraft leveling guide 70-80 should you purchase is just any of these top four will do.

This may mean that you're going to have a reference for the quests, you could have somebody that will share their info and familiarity of WOTLK thru the beta, and share their idea on how it's possible to get to level 70-80 in the least possible period.

Leveling in Rage of the Lich King will now be simple for :. Those that were included in the beta and were familiarised with the Northrend area and death knights, as well as the professions, quests, and lots more. Those that receive help from folk who were included in the beta to level the field. Do you want to get left at the back, or always be one step in front of everybody else in Rage of the Lich King?
Diposkan oleh cahyablog di 09:47 0 komentar
Label: entertainment
Minggu, 06 September 2009
Important Advices on RTG Casinos
Let's admit it. Playing at RTG casinos can be very exciting indeed especially when you start envisioning the riches you can accumulate in the comforts of your own home. But before you start your flights of imagination, it pays to catch up on some advice on RTG casinos. This way, you will know how to play by the rules. Oh, yes. There are rules in RTG casinos that are designed to put order out of the potential chaos that can result from online gambling!

Play Mechanics

To begin playing, you must have the RTG gaming software on your computer. Well, of course, this presupposes that you have a computer with an Internet connection, obviously.

You can start playing as soon as you perform the following steps:

* To download the gaming software, you must register with the online casino. Go to the casino lobby area, click on the New Account icon, click preferred deposit option (Visa, MasterCard, NetTeller, wire transfer, UseMybank, to name a few) and deposit your money to your account, fill up registration form with correct information and click OK.

* To deposit money for playing, you will again visit the online casino lobby, click on the "Cashier" icon, click on the preferred deposit option, click deposit and start playing.

To do so, you just choose from amongst the table games, video poker, multi-hand video poker, slots, multi-line slots, progressive games, and real series and specialty games.

Player Etiquette

There are rules of etiquette to be followed in RTG casinos. These are very necessary so as to make the online gaming experience pleasant for all the players, not to mention that even in online gaming, you want to exercise the Golden Rule lest you find yourself banned forever from playing in RTG casinos.

* You have to stick to your own game level, which will be considerate of players who are below and above your level of play. If you want to advance to a higher level without inconveniencing the other players, opt for the pretend games so as to hone your skills first.

* You have to use the chat feature in online gaming nicely. No abusive words, no vulgar tirades, no frustrated rants, no profanities, no hate words, please.

* You have to use English in your conversations, which are mandated by RTG casino rules. This way, you will not be the victim of unfair team play and collusion just because other players speak an obscure language in Timbuktu and you don't.

Play Limits

More important than being able to play nice with other RTG online casino players is the ability to gamble responsibly. You want to enjoy the experience and acquire more money without falling into an unhealthy addiction. Thus, it helps to remember that online gaming must be a source of profitable entertainment. Thus, you should not allow it to interfere with your responsibilities in the home, workplace and in society. Also, you have to set acceptable limits on your profits and losses. When these limits are achieved, walk away lest you be tempted to gamble more, thus, exposing you to higher risks of losing your profits or increasing your losses.

Truly, when you catch up on some advice on RTG casinos, you will be able to play well, play nice and play profitably.
Diposkan oleh cahyablog di 09:48 0 komentar
Label: entertainment
Sabtu, 05 September 2009
Switchback Railway - Coney Island Paved The Way For Roller Coasters Today
The very first roller coaster every built as an amusement ride was the Switchback Railway in Coney Island. This was all the way back in 1884, long before Six Flags or other theme parks came around. The designer was a man named LaMarcus Ada Thompson, who based his designed partially around the Mauch Chunk Switchback Railway. An actual coal mining train that boarded passengers as a thrill ride.
The ride was 600 ft long, and with a speed of about 6 miles per hour. This may seem like nothing compared the 8,100 ft long Steel Dragon of Japan or 78 mile per hour Son of a Beast in Kings Island but for it's time it was unique, and quite the marvel. For a 5 cent fee, riders would board a car that would ride down the 600 ft track until it reached the end and then would be "switched back" to anther track where it would return.

The design of the switchback railway was eventually replaced by a modified version where the track completed a full circle. Not long after newer and newer ideas started to surface such as rides that would take passengers through dark painted tunnels. Eventually gravity roller coasters were replaced with electric powered alternatives and the rest is history.

There are not many original roller coasters such as the Switchback Railway around any more as they were commonly torn down so larger ones could be built. However, there is a popular trend of old coasters being brought back to life with the help of modern technology. This allows people to get the "feel" of the old style wooden coaster, but with the safety of stele. So any time you look at one of the wooden roller coasters of today, always remember where it all started. With the Swithback Railway, Coney Island New York.
Diposkan oleh cahyablog di 09:51 0 komentar
Label: entertainment
Jumat, 04 September 2009
How to Play in Online Slots
RTG casinos offer numerous online slots with which to enjoy yourself and earn money in the process. And to really have the chance to earn money, you must learn how to play online slots! It's that simple, really, when you come to think of it. And speaking of simple, playing the online slots may seem simple enough especially when you consider that the actions seem repetitive - spin and spin some more. You will discover, however, that knowing how to play will make the difference between losing your shirt and acquiring your first thousand in online slots.

Click the Payout Table

To start playing, you must click on the payout table and select the number of coins necessary to place your desired bet. To do so, just remember the following rules:

* Click on the "Bet One" button to increase your bet amount by one * Click on the "Bet Max" button to increase the number of coins you want to bet to its maximum level.

You want to play the maximum bet so as to get the maximum opportunity out of the online slots. Most experts agree on this tip towards winning more at the online slots.

Hit the "Spin" Button

Once you have chosen your bet amount, you have to click on the "Spin" button. This is where the fun of online slots begins especially when you can shout encouragements for the reels to align themselves as desired. (By you, of course) So, watch those reels spinning like so many dollars flashing before your eyes.

Once the winning combination across many paylines is achieved, and you had better play and pray that it does get to that point, you will be paid the corresponding amount. Of course, said winnings will be according to the Payout Schedule of the particular online slot game. And if you bet on online slots with a Bonus Game, the action of hitting the "Spin" button will activate it. This means, of course, that you get to play more and win more!

If, by some twist of fate, you fail to win the round, well, don't despair. You can spin until you win - this is the only surefire way to earn money in online slots. Within reasonable limits, of course, as you want to earn money more than you lose money such that you earn a respectable profit in the long run.

Changing the Coin Bet Amount

This is a simple operation, really. Just click on the "Select Lines" button and see more and more paylines flashing before your screen the more you click on it. To buy more credits, you have to click on the "Bank" button, which will open the banking system for the online slot games. You can then purchase your desired number of additional credits. Then, you will exit the bank to return to the online slot game or to the casino lobby.

The secret in mastering the steps in how to play online slots, of course, is to play them whenever you have the opportunity. As we say, practice makes perfect and perfection makes profit.
Diposkan oleh cahyablog di 09:52 0 komentar
Label: entertainment
Kamis, 03 September 2009
TV Shows on Dvd
TV shows on DVD are a new wonder. You can acquire entire seasons complete with formerly unseen footage, making of segments, actor interviews, reunion show episodes, pilot episodes and bloopers. Practically any series that has continued more than one season and gotten adequate ratings will be offered at Amazon.com or another seller. These DVDs permit a person to view every single episode without the irritation of commercial breaks several times per show that can literally wreck the viewing experience. Numerous TV lovers are extremely dedicated to their favorite series and can get together with other like-minded fans to have a viewing party.

TV shows on DVD also permit people to join in belatedly on a series they may not have begun watching at the very beginning of the show. A series like Lost which is story line and driven by its characters is tough to join in on in the heart of a season or anytime after the pilot for that matter. The plots and characters are exceptionally interconnected and prior information is vital in figuring out what is happening. Being able to buy the season of their choice on dvd lets someone to start watching where the writers intended them to or watch episodes that they may have missed for whatever reason.

Another good thing about TV shows on DVD is the fact that the viewer can go back and look for clues and even uncover little known goofs. This is an activity for the dedicated viewer and can even develop into a game. You can go back and observe old shows to discover a character's folks had different names in a previous episode than they did later on in the series or even at this point, if it is still being broadcast. Complicated series like Lost can be dissected in order to discover clues to what is in reality happening on that island. Discovering bloopers on even the very finest of shows is not unusual. We have all seen the microphone above our favorite character's head or a truck traveling down the interstate in the background on a program like Bonanza that was set several years prior to the internal combustion engine.

TV shows on DVD also permit fans to get a chance to watch the timeless shows of the past that they might otherwise never get to see. Not all of the hits from the past end up on TV Land and can offer great blasts from yesteryear. These can also make fantastic gifts for the persons in the family who grew up on these shows and can't locate them in rerun anyplace. It's simply mind-boggling how little a good number of fans remember concerning a series they viewed more than 10 years ago. It's like viewing your much loved series for the first time again!

One downside to the fantastic popularity of TV shows on DVD is the fact that it suggests that there is not much innovative on TV to hold our interest. Many series can be viewed in rerun but often only at three o'clock in the morning or in the same time slot that a new series you like is also being broadcast. These unforgettable TV shows on Dvd were made at a moment in time when only three TV stations had to compete for fans so there were typically more funds on hand for production. A comparison with the shows of today typically points out the lack of imagination in much of current day TV.
Diposkan oleh cahyablog di 09:54 0 komentar
Label: entertainment
Rabu, 02 September 2009
5 Fun Activities Ideas for Your Nursery School
Children under five have active minds that require constant attention. To help you keep your nursery school children occupied, learning and having fun, here are five activities ideas for you to try out at your nursery school.

1. Make your own festive decorations

This is a good example of multi-tasking. Have a decoration making session with your children. You can choose how you'd like to decorate your nursery for the festive season and then as a group make all the decorations using art and craft materials. This is a fun, educational activity that might also save you some money on decorations. A tip for this activity is to plan exactly who does what, so that your decorations have coherence.

2. Go out into the wilderness to explore nature

It's important that children understand nature and start to gain an understanding of science, ready for when they go to school in a few years. Why not go on an expedition into the playground or garden if you have one, to see what creatures your children can identify and what animal groups they belong to. For example, is a spider an insect or an arachnid? And is it dangerous? Do some people react differently to wasp stings than others?

3. Roll Play

Society is a huge and complex system. Children often learn about complicated things more easily when they copy. Role playing can be an effective way for children to learn about work, emergency services, school and family life. So why not try dressing up and building a simple cardboard set to role play different activities.

4. Learn to ride

Some of your children might not have ridden a bike or trike before. One of the easiest ways to learn to ride is with a 'balance bike'. These don't have pedals or chains. Children use their feet to adjust their weight. This way they learn to balance naturally. They can be riding normal bikes within weeks of practicing on a balance bike. It might be worth investing in a few in your next nursery school supplies order.

5. Build bridges

This is a great activity. Split your nursery into groups and ask them to build a bridge between two tables or other pieces of furniture. You could use paper, Lego, building blocks, the choice is yours. This can be a very challenging task but children are very creative and imaginative. It's good to challenge them and see what they can do. Maybe some of the children at your nursery school will be future architects.
Diposkan oleh cahyablog di 19:17 0 komentar
Label: public schools
Selasa, 01 September 2009
Uniforms In School Are Traditional!
It is more beneficial for students to dress appropriately everyday for school instead of wearing uniforms. By appropriate, I mean the right type of clothing that follows school regulations. Students, especially girls, enjoy organizing their clothes, with the necessary accessories to make the outfit complete. I formulate it takes going to school to another height - it's more exciting and interesting. It is dull when it is mandatory that students wear the same color and type of uniform each and everyday. Students need variation in their lives.

I believe the kids are preparing for the real world when able to dress accordingly - this will also prepare them for working outside of the home. Although some jobs permit you to wear uniforms, still students need the practice and experience in the proper way to dress. My youngest daughter wore uniforms all last year. She is so bubbling with joy about being able to wear clothes other than uniforms. She has become great in matching her outfits. She wasn't very good at bringing together the right colors, at first. Now - she is exceptional!

This equips the students for the future. If the career as an entrepreneur is one students seek, it is instilled in the students early how one should dress, the appropriate appearance, their hygiene, etc. It is crucial students be taught also how one should dress when the occasion celebrated is formal or dressy. I taught my kids young. I take great pride and enjoy immensely dressing my children. They were coordinated from head to toe. I also find it eloquent to dress Ed and myself.

I miss being able to dress kids, but foresee the adventure with our children, Edwin and I. I know you can't wait to observe what outfitsI can create. It's amazing!

2009-11-04T23:58:00.000-08:00

Fresh Herb Gardening
For anyone, fresh herb gardening can be quite the rewarding adventure. You can get your fresh herb gardening off to a great start with a little preparation.

Herb Garden Design

First off, think carefully about which herbs you'd like to plant and where to place them in your allotted space. A great place for frequently used herbs such as basil and parsley is along the borders of your garden. If planting both annuals and perennials - which you'll likely want - leave the perennials enough room to grow and expand.

Some herbs are well suited to inclusion in the vegetable garden, where they can be harvested as needed. Their self-seeding may even be welcome there. Annual herbs such as basil, coriander, and dill are quite convenient in fact if they are near the vegetables they will be cooked with.

Soil and location

Soil and site conditions are a few more elements that will affect the success of your fresh herb gardening. It is especially important that your soil have proper drainage. Too much water is detrimental and overly damp herbs will not grow well. Poor soil drainage all puts your herbs at risk of root rot. Keep this in mind with fresh herb gardening and when selecting the location for your garden.

Even if you don't have a well drained area for your fresh herb gardening, all is not lost. Remove the garden soil down 16 inches, and then add about three inches of gravel. On top of that, mix in a little bit of sand with the soil you removed before replacing it above the gravel. This will remedy any problem you're having with spoil drainage.

Planting herb seeds

Aside from a few exceptions, many herbs can be successfully cultivated from seed. When going this route, it is recommended to begin your fresh herb gardening in the late winter by planting the seeds in boxes. In spring, transplant the sprouts outdoors into the garden.

Since herb seeds are so small, take care not to sow them too deep. It may sound surprising, but 1/8 of an inch of soil is often enough for exceptionally fine seeds such as marjoram, savory, or thyme. Cover fine seeds with burlap during germination to keep the soil moist. A few other herbs, such as fennel, dill, and coriander, don't transplant well. If starting these herbs from seed, plant them straight into the garden.

Harvesting Herbs

One of the best parts of fresh herb gardening naturally is the harvest. As soon as your plants have enough leaves to maintain growth, you can begin harvesting. Some herbs are well suited to the vegetable garden. Herbs such as basil, rosemary, and sage are often used in cooking so placing them in a vegetable garden makes it easy to harvest at the same time the vegetables and herbs that go well together. A great bonus to inter-planting your herbs in the vegetable or flower garden is that, again, many herbs attract beneficial insects to the garden. This will certainly help in overall pest control.

The best time to harvest the leaves or seeds from your fresh herb garden is early in the morning. The essential oils that insure excellent flavor and aroma are at their best before the sun gets hot so harvest your herbs just after the dew has gone away.

You should now be all set to begin your adventure in fresh herb gardening!
Diposkan oleh cahyablog di 16:05 0 komentar
Label: gardening
Minggu, 15 November 2009
Managing Up; How to Deal with a Bad Boss
Consider yourself extremely lucky if you've never had to bear the wrath of a difficult boss. You may still want to read this article though. I hate to break it to you, but at one point or another in our careers, unfortunately most of us will have to deal with a boss that can make our lives a living nightmare. If you've ever worked for a toxic manager, you know what I'm talking about.

Bad bosses come in all shapes and forms. Some managers yell while others steal credit. Some whine and others are just plain quirky. And then you have those who are downright incompetent, and you wonder how in the world they ever got to where they are. So how do you deal with an ineffective manager? Quitting your job is an option, but probably not a realistic option for most of us. Don't despair. There are ways to overcome the challenges presented by a lousy employer. Leadership experts call it "managing up". It's a way of getting around your manager's shortcomings so that you can excel at your job.

In their new book called Working for You Isn't Working for Me: The Ultimate Guide to Managing Your Boss, authors Katherine Crowley and Kathi Elster offer the following advice:

1. Detect the problems that exist in your relationship with your boss. Ask yourself, is it him or is it me? Be as objective as you can. Consider your boss' relationship with others in the workplace. Do others seem to have the same issues or do they seem to get along just fine?

2. Accept the behavior. You're not going to change your boss so you're going to have to modify your own behavior.

3. Depersonalize the experience. It's highly likely that if your boss is toxic, it has nothing to do with you. He was that way before you reported to him and he'll be that way after you leave.

4. Deal with the situation. By coming to terms with the fact that this is just the way your boss is and accepting it, you'll be able to deal with the challenges that face you and move forward.

The authors offer great advice but are realistic. They recognize that their strategies will only take you so far. If your boss is making you absolutely miserable and it's affecting your health, leaving your job may be the right option.
Diposkan oleh cahyablog di 16:20 0 komentar
Label: career management
Sabtu, 14 November 2009
Branding Lessons: Build School Culture and Identity with A BRAND

You’re an educator and you are starting to think about branding. Of course, you can’t help but do this. When I am asked in business settings about my ability to work within the business community, since my perspective is informed by education, I simply smile and say…”I’ve been in the business sales all my life. I’ve sold “education” to a diverse marketplace: students, teachers, parents, administrators, school board members and the community.”

So today, with my sales perspective, I’m traveling the country speaking to educators about the common ground of educators and business people. The ground of selling and living a BRAND for ROI in education.

Let’s capture one Branding definition to work with. Branding is a total experience for the user that is based on relationship. It’s more than a logo or a tagline.

If we lead with that principle, then as educators, we should feel a good fit. Education is about building relationships. Educators work hard to do honor that, and have their own tools that make this harmony of relationship building happen everyday in schools. SO with that in mind, can a school culture be created through strategic understanding and a champaign to advance a brand? Can this result in brand loyalty among students, teachers, parents, administrators, board members and the community?

To define what education is today is as challenging as defining what a brand is. There are many ways people try to define both, and branding is in essence solid and changing at the same time. That is true for education as well.

The way to make connections right off the bat is through CULTURE. Branding tenets that are from Madison Avenue’s hallowed halls are perfect tools to develop language and attitude for building CULTURE across the diverse market for education. The beginning of the work lies in the understanding that branding is based in an implied promise. In schools, the promise is achievement. Savvy principals today can be Madmen…or women leaders by applying Madison Avenue tools to include branding, some marketing and a dash of social media to create culture that feeds a loyalty to the organization. Madman Principles? They work. And you’d be crazy not to try.
Diposkan oleh cahyablog di 16:42 0 komentar
Label: education
Jumat, 13 November 2009
6 Things You Must Know Before Becoming a Physical Therapist
Many people do not really know how to differentiate a physical therapist from personal trainer or exercise instructor. In their point of view, these 3 professions are the same. In fact, they are totally different in terms of level of education and scope of work. If you have the intention to become a qualified therapist, here are some important things you need to know before making your final decision.

In order to get involved in this field, you need a master degree in physical therapy. If you have no idea how to select the right school, you are advised to browse through the website of the American Physical Therapy Association to find out the list of accredited schools and their admission information. If you are not sure about the prospects of this career, you are advised to consult the local hospitals, rehabilitation centers or any private therapy practice about their hiring forecasts. From there, you are able to decide whether this is a rewarding field or not. You have to bear in mind that this line is highly competitive. As a result, you are reminded to maintain an excellent grade during your study. Before getting into this line, you should start enhancing your interpersonal skills. Be prepared that you are required to advise frustrated patients and family members from time to time in your future workplace. Before starting your career, you must pass the mandatory licensure examination once you have completed your master degree. It is important for you to check your state's exact licensing requirements before you graduate. Remember that you have the freedom to choose which areas you would like to specialize. You can work towards a specialty in neurology, pediatrics, woman's health or sports medicine.

Working as a physical therapist is challenging. You need to make sure that you have reached the competency level required before you start working.
Diposkan oleh cahyablog di 16:21 0 komentar
Label: career management
Kamis, 12 November 2009
Boost your salary!
The recession of 2008 has finally ended but it is still a tough economy to survive. The commerce department reported that incomes were flat for the month of September so in fact as a nation, we all made less this month than the previous month when you throw in inflation. Dating back to last year, income has risen about 2%.

To boost your salary during tough economic times is going to take outside the box thinking. That is where competitive advantage sets in. Simply put, competitive advantage is the ability to do something easier than someone else. So a 7 feet person has a competitive advantage over someone that is 5 feet when it comes to dunking a basketball hoop. To boost your salary, I encourage you to think about any competitive advantage that you might have (Legal Of course) to boost your salary.

We have all heard of someone that has a side job. These days side jobs are becoming the norm and increasing in popularity. In Taiwan , over 60% of workers do side jobs and 82% of those without are looking. Not just any side job is going to work. Successful businesses all have a competitive advantage so your side job must recognize its competitive advantage.

Consider two teenagers trying to start a lawn mowing business. If one of the teenager's parents worked in a bank and the other teenager's parent had a home business that sold household items. Which would have a competitive advantage? It is the teen with the parent that has the home business. Why? The teen could advertise their lawn service as a complimentary service with their parent's business or the parent could lend their expertise and teach the teen how to sell to households. This puts the teen at an advantage over the one that has a parent that works in the bank. Look around you, there are advantages everywhere. Put them to work and incorporate it with a side job to help to boost salary.

There is no limit on the types of side jobs that you can do. You could help with tax preparation, fix computers, do hair, mentor, clean gutters etc
Diposkan oleh cahyablog di 16:19 0 komentar
Label: career management
Rabu, 11 November 2009
Need a Job in the Philippines? Use this List of Top Jobs in the Philippines!
Fresh graduates in the Philippines often have trouble finding work that pays well. If you are one of them and you are looking for a job that gives good compensation, you should read on. Below is a list of the most in demand jobs in the Philippines today. The only downside is that these jobs may not coincide with the degree you have chosen. The advantage here is that these actually give good salaries and benefits. In reality, these jobs have helped raise the rate of employment in the country.

* Call Center Agent - If you read about information about the call centers in the world, the Philippines is actually coming close to India in the race of becoming the best BPO country. Every day, more and more are being built in the country, while more and more applicants come in with good English skills. Becoming a call center agent can be a good way to start your career since this will help you improve your communication and people skills.

* Information Technology Specialist - Slowly, the Philippines is progressing in the field of information technology. While technology is becoming more in demand in the world, the need for IT specialists are also growing. These jobs pay well but require extensive training, which are found in many schools in the country.

* English Teachers - With the growth of foreign population in the country, English teachers are needed. Apart from teaching the Filipinos to learn the language, instructors are also needed to train foreigners learn English for their businesses and even for their own convenience.

* OFWs - Many Filipinos believe that to be in greener pastures, they have to go abroad. Luckily for some, they are able to make it big in other countries since these give good pay, benefits and even travel opportunities. The only disadvantage here is that they would have to be away from their families.

Diposkan oleh cahyablog di 16:15 0 komentar
Label: career management
Selasa, 10 November 2009
Educational Leaders in Public Schools

Public schools are well known for careful stratification and segregation of age groups. Public schools are so poorly run (take DPS for example) that all of those kids run across the county line to attend any school that will accept them. These kids are so far behind academically because of the crap that DPS taught or didn’t teach, that they will never be academically successful.

Public schools are not required to answer to parents, but they do need to heed the words of politicians and school boards-all of whom have their own political agendas. It would not be an exaggeration to say that these agendas are weakening the entire system.

Public schools are operated at the state level through departments of education, and locally by school districts and publicly elected or appointed school boards. Approximately 15,000 different school districts operate in the United States, and most are run by counties.

Educational leaders have focused in recent years on providing safe and disciplined school environments for students and teachers. Many schools have increased expulsions of violent students by adopting “zero tolerance policies” toward serious offenders. Education outcomes become irrelevant. Educators and parents can post a “viewpoint” page on the site that acts as an online profile, and they can participate in discussion forums, share links and resources, and review teaching materials.

Education reformers and policymakers who consider higher academic standards a centerpiece of their movement should not count on teachers to be a driving force, added Wadsworth. It may be that the academic energies of even the most motivated teachers are sapped by what they consider to be the stressful day-to-day demands of the classroom. Education costs have been rising faster than inflation. Many parents want, but cannot afford, these private alternatives. Educating for citizenship, work and the public good has been replaced with models of schooling in which students, especially poor minority youth, are viewed narrowly either as a threat or as perpetrators of violence. When not viewed as potential criminals, they are positioned as infantilized potential victims of crime (on the Internet, at school and in other youth spheres) who must endure modes of governing that are demeaning and repressive.

Educators must recover their higher motivation, a spirituality that comes from faith not in religion but in civilization, humanity’s sanctuary from the cruel vortex of nature. Educational alternatives would be unlimited. It would be the source of enormous progress, and a model for the nation.

history_of_america

2009-11-04T20:11:00.000-08:00

History of the United States
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"American history" redirects here. For the history of the continents, see History of the Americas.
See also: Outline of United States history
History of the United States
Coat of Arms of the United States
This article is part of a series
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Pre-Columbian period
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Topic
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Diplomatic history
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The first known inhabitants of what is now the United States are believed to have arrived over a period of several thousand years beginning sometime prior to 15,000–50,000 years ago by crossing Beringia into Alaska.[1][2] Solid evidence of these cultures settling in what would become United States territory is dated to around 14,000 years ago.[3] Research has revealed much about the early Native American in North America. Christopher Columbus' men were the first documented settlers from the Old World to land in the territory of what is now the United States when they arrived in Puerto Rico during their second voyage in the year 1493.[4] Juan Ponce de León, who arrived in Florida in 1513, is credited as being the first European to land in what is now the continental United States,[5] although some evidence suggests that John Cabot might have reached what is presently New England in 1498.[6][7]

The arrival of Europeans began the colonial history of the United States. The Thirteen Colonies, British colonies that would become the original US states, were founded along what is now the country's east coast beginning in 1607. Various other European powers also founded settlements in what would become US territory, both before and later. Due to growing dissatisfaction with British rule, the thirteen British colonies fought the British army in the American Revolutionary War of the 1770s and issued a Declaration of Independence in 1776. In early 1781, the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union of the States were established, six months before the end of hostilities in the Revolutionary War. Two years later, Britain officially recognized the sovereignty and independence of the United States in the Treaty of Paris.[8] After the nation split along state lines in 1861, the Civil War—the deadliest war in US history—reunified the country. In the nineteenth century, westward expansion of United States territory began, encouraged by the belief in Manifest Destiny, in which the United States would occupy all of North America east to west, from the Atlantic to the Pacific Oceans. By 1912, with the admission of Arizona to the Union, the US reached that goal. The outlying states of Alaska and Hawaii were both admitted in 1959.

Ratified in 1788, the US Constitution serves as the supreme law in organizing the government; the Supreme Court is responsible for upholding Constitutional law. Many forms of social progress started in the nineteenth century; those advancements have been widely reflected in the Constitution. Slavery was abolished in 1865 by the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution; the following Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments respectively guaranteed citizenship for all persons naturalized within US territory and voting for people of all races. In later decades, civil rights were extended to women and African-Americans, following effective lobbying from social activists. The Nineteenth Amendment prohibited gender discrimination in voting rights; later, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 outlawed racial segregation in public places.

The Progressive Era marked a time of economic growth for the United States, advancing to the Roaring Twenties. However, the Wall Street Crash of 1929 led to the Great Depression, a time of economic downturn and mass unemployment. Consequently, the U.S. government established the New Deal, a series of reform programs that intended to assist those affected by the Depression. The New Deal had varied success. However, once the US entered World War II in December 1941, the economy quickly recovered, so much that the US became a world superpower by the dawn of the Cold War. During the Cold War, the US and the Soviet Union were the world's two superpowers, but with the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union, the United States became the world's only superpower.
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Pre-Columbian period
o 1.1 North America's Moundbuilder Culture
* 2 Colonial period
o 2.1 Spanish colonization
o 2.2 Dutch colonization
o 2.3 French colonization
o 2.4 British colonization
o 2.5 Political integration and autonomy
* 3 Formation of the United States of America (1776–1789)
o 3.1 Foundations for American government
* 4 Westward expansion (1789–1849)
* 5 Civil War era (1849–1865)
* 6 Reconstruction and the rise of industrialization (1865–1890)
* 7 Progressivism, imperialism, and World War I (1890–1918)
* 8 Women's suffrage
* 9 Post-World War I and the Great Depression (1918–1940)
* 10 World War II (1941–1945)
o 10.1 Battle against Germany
o 10.2 Battle against Japan
* 11 The Cold War begins (1945–1964)
* 12 The Civil Rights Movement (1955–1970)
* 13 The Women's Movement (1963–1982)
* 14 The Counterculture Revolution and Cold War Détente (1964–1980)
* 15 The end of the Cold War (1980–1991)
* 16 The "World Superpower" (1991–present)
* 17 See also
* 18 Notes
* 19 References
* 20 Further reading
* 21 External links

[edit] Pre-Columbian period
Main article: Pre-Columbian

The earliest known inhabitants of what is now the United States are thought to have arrived in Alaska by crossing the Bering land bridge, at least 14,000 – 30,000 years ago.[9] Some of these groups migrated south and east, and over time spread throughout the Americas. These were the ancestors to modern Native Americans in the United States and Alaskan Native peoples, as well as all indigenous peoples of the Americas.

Many indigenous peoples were semi-nomadic tribes of hunter-gatherers; others were sedentary and agricultural civilizations. Many formed new tribes or confederations in response to European colonization. Well-known groups included the Huron, Apache Tribe, Cherokee, Sioux, Delaware, Algonquin, Choctaw, Mohegan, Iroquois (which included the Mohawk nation, Oneida tribe, Seneca nation, Cayuga nation, Onondaga and later the Tuscarora tribe) and Inuit. Though not as technologically advanced as the Mesoamerican civilizations further south, there were extensive pre-Columbian sedentary societies in what is now the US. The Iroquois had a politically advanced and unique social structure that was at the very least inspirational if not directly influential to the later development of the democratic United States government, a departure from the strong monarchies from which the Europeans came.[citation needed]
[edit] North America's Moundbuilder Culture
A Mississippian priest, with a ceremonial flint mace. Artist Herb Roe, based on a repousse copper plate.

Mound Builder is a general term referring to the original inhabitants who constructed various styles of earthen mounds for burial, residential and ceremonial purposes. These included Archaic, Woodland period (Adena and Hopewell cultures), and Mississippian period Pre-Columbian cultures dating from roughly 3000 BC to the 16th century AD, and living in the Great Lakes region, the Ohio River region, and the Mississippi River region.

Mound builder cultures can be divided into roughly three eras:

Archaic era

Poverty Point in what is now Louisiana is perhaps the most prominent example of early archaic mound builder construction (c. 2500 – 1000 BC). An even earlier example, Watson Brake, dates to approximately 3400 BC and coincides with the emergence of social complexity worldwide.

Woodland period

The Archaic period was followed by the Woodland period (c. 1000 BC). Some well-understood examples would be the Adena culture of Ohio and nearby states and the subsequent Hopewell culture known from Illinois to Ohio and renowned for their geometric earthworks. The Adena and Hopewell were not, however, the only mound building peoples during this time period. There were contemporaneous mound building cultures throughout the Eastern United States.

Mississippian culture

Main article: Mississippian Culture

Around 900 – 1450 AD the Mississippian culture developed and spread through the Eastern United States, primarily along the river valleys. The location where the Mississippian culture is first clearly developed is located in Illinois, and is referred to today as Cahokia.
[edit] Colonial period
Main article: Colonial history of the United States
The Mayflower, which transported Pilgrims to the New World

After a period of exploration by people from various European countries, Spanish, Dutch, English, French, Swedish, and Portuguese settlements were established. Christopher Columbus first landed and encountered indigenous peoples, mainly the Arawak natives, on what is now the Bahama Islands. The natives were extremely friendly and were frequently remarked by European observers for their hospitality and belief in sharing. The Arawaks had lived in village communes, and had an advanced agriculture consisting of maize, yams, and cassava. They spun and wove textiles, however they had no work animals for labor. Columbus would later describe his initial encounter in his captain's log,

"They...brought us parrots and balls of cotton and spears and many other things, which they exchanged for the glass beads and hawks' bells. They willingly traded everything they owned... They were well-built, with good bodies and handsome features... They do not bear arms, and do not know them, for I showed them a sword, they took it by the edge and cut themselves out of ignorance. They have no iron. Their spears are made of cane.... They would make fine servants.... With fifty men we could subjugate them all and make them do whatever we want."[10]

Columbus was the first European to set foot on what would one day become US territory when he came to Puerto Rico on November 19, 1493, during his second voyage.

In the 16th century, Europeans brought horses, cattle, and hogs to the Americas and, in turn, took back to Europe maize, potatoes, tobacco, beans, squash, and slave natives, many of whom died enroute.
[edit] Spanish colonization
Coronado Sets Out to the North (1540) by Frederic Remington, oil on canvas, 1905.
See also: New Spain

Spanish explorers came to what is now the United States beginning with Christopher Columbus' second expedition, which reached Puerto Rico on November 19, 1493.[11] The first confirmed landing in the continental US was by a Spaniard, Juan Ponce de León, who landed in 1513 on a lush shore he christened La Florida.[5]

Within three decades of Ponce de León's landing, the Spanish became the first Europeans to reach the Appalachian Mountains, the Mississippi River, the Grand Canyon[12] and the Great Plains. In 1540, Hernando de Soto undertook an extensive exploration of the present US and, in the same year, Francisco Vázquez de Coronado led 2,000 Spaniards and Native Mexican Americans across the modern Arizona–Mexico border and traveled as far as central Kansas.[13] Other Spanish explorers include Lucas Vásquez de Ayllón, Pánfilo de Narváez, Sebastián Vizcaíno, Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, Gaspar de Portolà, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, Tristán de Luna y Arellano and Juan de Oñate.[14]

The Spanish sent some settlers, creating the first permanent European settlement in the continental United States at St. Augustine, Florida in 1565.[15] Later Spanish settlements included Santa Fe, Albuquerque, San Antonio, Tucson, San Diego, Los Angeles and San Francisco. Most Spanish settlements were along the California coast or the Santa Fe River in New Mexico.
[edit] Dutch colonization
Main article: New Netherland

Nieuw-Nederland, or New Netherland, was the seventeenth century Dutch colonial province on the eastern coast of North America. The claimed territory were the lands from the Delmarva Peninsula to Buzzards Bay, while the settled areas are now part of New Jersey, New York, Connecticut, Delaware, and Pennsylvania. Its capital, New Amsterdam, was located at the southern tip of the island of Manhattan on the Upper New York Bay and was renamed New York.
[edit] French colonization
See also: New France and Fort Caroline

New France was the area colonized by France in North America during a period extending from the exploration of the Saint Lawrence River, by Jacques Cartier in 1534, to the cession of New France to Spain and Britain in 1763. At its peak in 1712 (before the Treaty of Utrecht), the territory of New France extended from Newfoundland to the Rocky Mountains and from Hudson Bay to the Gulf of Mexico. The territory was divided in five colonies, each with its own administration: Canada, Acadia, Hudson Bay, Newfoundland and Louisiana.

Also during this period, French Huguenots, sailing under Jean Ribault, attempted to found a colony in what became the southeastern coast of the United States. Arriving in 1562, they established the ephemeral colony of Charlesfort on Parris Island in what is now South Carolina. When this failed, most of the colonists followed René Goulaine de Laudonnière and moved south, founding the colony of Fort Caroline at the mouth of the St. Johns River in what is now Jacksonville, Florida on June 22, 1564. Fort Caroline was destroyed in 1565 by the Spanish under Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, who moved in from St. Augustine, founded to the south earlier in the year.
[edit] British colonization
In 1607, the Virginia Company of London established the Jamestown Settlement on the James River, both named after King James I
Main article: British colonization of the Americas

The strip of land along the eastern seacoast was settled primarily by English colonists in the 17th century, along with much smaller numbers of Dutch and Swedes. Colonial America was defined by a severe labor shortage that gave birth to forms of unfree labor such as slavery and indentured servitude,[16] and by a British policy of benign neglect (salutary neglect) that permitted the development of an American spirit distinct from that of its European founders.[17] Over half of all European migrants to Colonial America arrived as indentured servants.[18]

The first successful English colony was established in 1607, on the James River at Jamestown. It languished for decades until a new wave of settlers arrived in the late 17th century and established commercial agriculture based on tobacco. Between the late 1610s and the Revolution, the British shipped an estimated 50,000 convicts to its American colonies.[19] One example of conflict between Native Americans and English settlers was the 1622 Powhatan uprising in Virginia, in which Native Americans had killed hundreds of English settlers. The largest conflict between Native Americans and English settlers in the 17th century was King Philip's War in New England,[20] although the Yamasee War may have been bloodier.[21]

The Plymouth Colony was established in 1620. The area of New England was initially settled primarily by Puritans who established the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630.[15] The Middle Colonies, consisting of the present-day states of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware, were characterized by a large degree of diversity. The first attempted English settlement south of Virginia was the Province of Carolina, with Georgia Colony the last of the Thirteen Colonies established in 1733.[22] Several colonies were used as penal settlements from the 1620s until the American Revolution.[23] Methodism became the prevalent religion among colonial citizens after the First Great Awakening, a religious revival led by preacher Jonathan Edwards in 1734.[15]
[edit] Political integration and autonomy
Join, or Die: This 1756 political cartoon by Benjamin Franklin urged the colonies to join together during the French and Indian War.

The French and Indian War (1754–1763) was a watershed event in the political development of the colonies. The influence of the main rivals of the British Crown in the colonies and Canada, the French and North American Indians, was significantly reduced. Moreover, the war effort resulted in greater political integration of the colonies, as symbolized by Benjamin Franklin's call for the colonies to "Join or Die". Following Britain's acquisition of French territory in North America, King George III issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763 with the goal of organizing the new North American empire and stabilizing relations with the native Indians. In ensuing years, strains developed in the relations between the colonists and the Crown. The British Parliament passed the Stamp Act of 1765, imposing a tax on the colonies to help pay for troops stationed in North America following the British victory in the Seven Years' War. The British government felt that the colonies were the primary beneficiaries of this military presence, and should pay at least a portion of the expense. The colonists did not share this view. Rather, with the French and Indian threat diminished, the primary outside influence remained that of Britain. A conflict of economic interests increased with the right of the British Parliament to govern the colonies without representation being called into question.
Nathaniel Currier's 1846 depiction of the Boston Tea Party.[24]

The Boston Tea Party in 1773 was a direct action by colonists in the town of Boston to protest against the taxes levied by the British government. Parliament responded the next year with the Coercive Acts, which sparked outrage and resistance in the Thirteen Colonies. Colonists convened the First Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance to the Coercive Acts. The Congress called for a boycott of British trade, published a list of rights and grievances, and petitioned the king for redress of those grievances.

The Congress also called for a another meeting in the event that their petition was unsuccessful in halting enforcement of the Coercive Acts. Their appeal to the Crown had no effect, and so the Second Continental Congress was convened in 1775 to organize the defense of the colonies at the onset of the American Revolutionary War.
[edit] Formation of the United States of America (1776–1789)
Main article: History of the United States (1776–1789)
Washington's crossing of the Delaware River, one of the rebels' first successes in the Revolutionary War

The Thirteen Colonies began a rebellion against British rule in 1775 and proclaimed their independence in 1776. They subsequently constituted the first thirteen states of the United States of America, which became a nation state in 1781 with the ratification of the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union. The 1783 Treaty of Paris represented the Kingdom of Great Britain's formal acknowledgement of the United States as an independent nation.[8]

The United States defeated Britain with help from France, the United Provinces and Spain in the American Revolutionary War. The colonists' victory at Saratoga in 1777 led the French into an open alliance with the United States. It is a matter of debate which state was the first to recognize the United States, but the claim extends to the Republic of Ragusa (now the city of Dubrovnik), the Netherlands and Morocco.[25]

In 1781, a combined American and French Army, acting with the support of a French fleet, captured a large British army led by General Charles Cornwallis at Yorktown, Virginia. The surrender of General Cornwallis ended serious British efforts to find a military solution to their American problem.[8] In effect, "the United States was the first major colony successfully to revolt against colonial rule. In this sense, it was the first 'new nation'."[26]
Trumbull's Declaration of Independence

Side by side with the states' efforts to gain independence through armed resistance, a political union was being developed and agreed upon by them. The first step was to formally declare independence from Great Britain. On July 4, 1776, the Second Continental Congress, still meeting in Philadelphia, declared the independence of "the United States of America" in the Declaration of Independence. Although the states were still independent entities and not yet formally bound in a legal union, July 4 is celebrated as the nation's birthday. The new nation was dedicated to principles of republicanism, which emphasized civic duty and a fear of corruption and hereditary aristocracy.[8]

A Union of the states with a constitutional government, the Congress of the Confederation first became possible with the ratification of the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union. The drafting of the Articles began in June 1776 and the approved text was sent to the States on November 15, 1777 for their ratification. While most States passed laws to authorize their representatives in Congress to sign the document by 1778, Maryland refused to do so until a dispute between the states concerning Western land claims had been resolved. After Virginia passed a law ceding its claims on January 2, 1781, Maryland became the 13th and final state to pass an Act to ratify the Articles on February 2, 1781. The formal signing of the Articles by Maryland was completed on March 1, 1781 in Philadelphia[27] and on the following day Samuel Huntington became the first President of the United States in Congress Assembled.[28] However, it became apparent early on that the new constitution was inadequate for the operation of the new government and efforts soon began to improve upon it.[29]
The territory of the newly formed USA was much smaller than it is today. A French map showing Les Etats Unis in 1790

A series of attempts to organize a movement to outline and press reforms culminated in the Congress calling the Philadelphia Convention in 1787. The structure of the national government was profoundly changed on March 4, 1789, when the American people replaced the confederation type government of the Articles with a federation type government of the Constitution. The new government reflected a radical break from the normative governmental structures of the time, favoring representative, elective government with a weak executive, rather than the existing monarchical structures common within the western traditions of the time. The system of republicanism borrowed heavily from the Enlightenment ideas and classical western philosophy: a primacy was placed upon individual liberty and upon constraining the power of government through a system of separation of powers.[29] Additionally, the United States Bill of Rights was ratified on December 15, 1791 to guarantee individual liberties such as freedom of speech and religious practice and consisted of the first ten amendments of the Constitution.[30] John Jay was the first Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, whose membership was established by the Judiciary Act of 1789; the first Supreme Court session was held in New York City on February 1, 1790.[31] In 1803, the Court case Marbury v. Madison made the Court the sole arbiter of constitutionality of federal law.[32]
[edit] Foundations for American government
Treaty of Penn with Indians by Benjamin West painted in 1827.

Native American societies reminded Europeans of a golden age only known to them in folk history.[33] The idea of freedom and democratic ideals was born in the Americas because "it was only in America" that Europeans from 1500 to 1776 knew of societies that were "truly free."[33]

Natural freedom is the only object of the policy of the [Native Americans]; with this freedom do nature and climate rule alone amongst them ... [Native Americans] maintain their freedom and find abundant nourishment . . . [and are] people who live without laws, without police, without religion.
—Jean Jacques Rousseau, Jesuit and Savage in New France[33]

The Iroquois nations' political confederacy and democratic government has been credited as one of the influences on the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution.[34][35] However, there is heated debate among historians about the importance of their contribution. Although Native American governmental influence is debated, it is a historical fact that several founding fathers had contact with the Iroquois, and prominent figures such as Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin were involved with the Iroquois.

As powerful, dense [Mound Builder] populations were reduced to weakened, scattered remnants, political readjustments were necessary. New confederacies were formed. One such was to become a pattern called up by Benjamin Franklin when the thirteen colonies struggled to confederate: "If the Iroquois can do it so can we", he said in substance.
—Bob Ferguson, Choctaw Government to 1830[36]

[edit] Westward expansion (1789–1849)
Main article: History of the United States (1789–1849)
Economic growth in America per capita income
Territorial expansion of the United States, omitting Oregon and other claims.

George Washington—a renowned hero of the American Revolutionary War, commander-in-chief of the Continental Army, and president of the Constitutional Convention—became the first President of the United States under the new US Constitution. The Whiskey Rebellion in 1794, when settlers in the Pennsylvania counties west of the Allegheny Mountains protested against a federal tax on liquor and distilled drinks, was the first serious test of the federal government.[37] At the end of his second presidential term, George Washington made his farewell address, which was published in the newspaper Independent Chronicle on September 26, 1796. In his address, Washington triumphed the benefits of federal government and importance of ethics and morality while warning against foreign alliances and formation of political parties.[38] His vice-president John Adams succeeded him in presidency; Adams was a member of the Federalist Party. However, the Federalists became divided after Adams sent a peace mission to France despite ongoing disputes with that nation. Thomas Jefferson, a Democratic-Republican, defeated Adams for the presidency in the 1800 election.[39]

The Louisiana Purchase, in 1803, removed the French presence from the western border of the United States and provided US settlers with vast potential for expansion west of the Mississippi River.[40] Slave importation from Africa became illegal in 1808, despite a growing plantation system in many southern states such as North Carolina and Georgia.[41] In response to continued British impressment of American sailors into the Royal Navy, the Congress declared war on Britain in 1812.[42] The United States and Britain came to a draw in the War of 1812 after bitter fighting that lasted until January 8, 1815, during the Battle of New Orleans. The Treaty of Ghent, officially ending the war, essentially resulted in the maintenance of the status quo ante bellum;[43] however, crucially for the US, some Native American tribes had to sign treaties with the US government because of their losses in the war.[42] During the later course of the war, the Federalists held the Hartford Convention in 1814 over concerns that the war would weaken New England. There, they proposed seven constitutional amendments meant to strengthen the region politically, but by the time the Federalists delivered them to Washington, DC, the recent American victories in New Orleans and the signing of the Treaty of Ghent undermined the Federalists' arguments and contributed to the downfall of the party.[44]

The Monroe Doctrine, expressed in 1823, proclaimed the United States' opinion that European powers should no longer colonize or interfere in the Americas. This was a defining moment in the foreign policy of the United States.[15] The Monroe Doctrine was adopted in response to US and British fears over Russian and French expansion into the Western Hemisphere. It was not until the administration of Theodore Roosevelt that the Monroe Doctrine became a central tenet of US foreign policy. The Monroe Dotrine was then invoked in the Spanish-American War as well as later when Nicaragua sought aid from the Soviet Union.[45]

In 1830, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act, which authorized the president to negotiate treaties that exchanged Native American tribal lands in the eastern states for lands west of the Mississippi River. This established Andrew Jackson, a military hero and President, as a cunning tyrant in regards to native populations. The act resulted most notably in the forced migration of several native tribes to the West, with several thousand people dying en route, and the Creeks' violent opposition and eventual defeat. The Indian Removal Act also directly caused the ceding of Spanish Florida and led to the many Seminole Wars.[46]
Settlers crossing the Plains of Nebraska

In its mission to end slavery, the abolitionist movement gained a large following from both black and white races. The American Anti-Slavery Society was politically active from 1833 to 1839 for the government to abolish slavery, but Congress imposed a "gag rule" that rejected any citizen's request against slavery.[47] William Lloyd Garrison, formerly associated with the Society, then began publication of the anti-slavery newspaper The Liberator in Boston, Massachusetts in 1831, and Frederick Douglass, an ex-slave, began writing for that newspaper around 1840 and started his own abolitionist newspaper North Star in 1847.[48]

The Republic of Texas was annexed by president John Tyler in 1845.[49] The US army, using regulars and large numbers of volunteers, defeated Mexico in 1848 during the Mexican-American War. Public sentiment in the US was divided as Whigs[50] and anti-slavery forces[51] opposed the war. The 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ceded California, New Mexico, and adjacent areas to the United States, about thirty percent of Mexico. Westward expansion was enhanced further by the California Gold Rush, the discovery of gold in that state in 1848. Numerous "forty-niners" trekked to California in pursuit of gold; land-hungry European immigrants also contributed to the rising white population in the west.[15] In 1849 cholera spread along the California and Oregon Trails. It is believed that over 150,000 Americans died during the two cholera pandemics between 1832 and 1849.[52]
[edit] Civil War era (1849–1865)
Main article: History of the United States (1849–1865)
The Battle of Gettysburg, the bloodiest battle and turning point of the American Civil War

In the middle of the 19th century, white Americans of the North and South were to reconcile fundamental differences in their approach to government, economics, society and African American slavery. The issue of slavery in the new territories was settled by the Compromise of 1850 brokered by Whig Henry Clay and Democrat Stephen Douglas; the Compromise included admission of California as a free state and the passage of the Fugitive Slave Act to make it easier for masters to reclaim runaway slaves.[49] In 1854, the proposed Kansas-Nebraska Act abrogated the Missouri Compromise by providing that each new state of the Union would decide its stance on slavery.[53] After Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 Election, eleven Southern states seceded from the union between late 1860 and 1861, establishing a rebel government, the Confederate States of America, on February 8, 1861.[54]

By 1860, there were nearly four million slaves residing in the United States, nearly eight times as many from 1790; within the same time period, cotton production in the U.S. boomed from less than a thousand tons to nearly one million tons per year. There were some slave rebellions – including by Gabriel Prosser (1800), Denmark Vesey (1822), and Nat Turner (1831) – but they all failed and led to tighter slave oversight in the south.[55] White abolitionist John Brown tried and failed to free a group of black slaves held in Harpers Ferry, Virginia and was therefore executed for his actions.[56] Harriet Beecher Stowe, daughter of minister Lyman Beecher, published her novel Uncle Tom's Cabin in 1852 in response to the passage of the Fugitive Slave Act. The novel intended to express her views of the cruelty of slavery and sold nearly 300,000 copies during its first year of publication and was regarded by many, including President Lincoln[citation needed], to be the book that started the Civil War.[49] Numerous slaves also escaped their masters through the Underground Railroad, a term defining secret routes where abolitionists confidentially transported runaway slaves to "free state" territory; its most famous leader was Harriet Tubman.[57]
The Union: blue, yellow, gray; The Confederacy: brown

The Civil War began on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces attacked a US military installation at Fort Sumter in South Carolina.[58] Along with the northwestern portion of Virginia, four of the five northernmost "slave states" did not secede and became known as the Border States.[54] Emboldened by Second Bull Run, the Confederacy made its first invasion of the North when General Robert E. Lee led the Army of Northern Virginia across the Potomac River into Maryland.[59] The Battle of Antietam near Sharpsburg, Maryland, on September 17, 1862, was the bloodiest single day in American history.[60] Following the highly successful battles at Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville, Lee attempted to invade the North again, but during the invasion encountered once again the Army of the Potomac. In the devastating 3-day, Battle of Gettysburg, Lee suffered his greatest loss in what would turn out to be the bloodiest battle in the war. On the following day in the west, Union forces under the command of General Ulysses S. Grant gained control of the Mississippi River at the Battle of Vicksburg, thereby splitting the Confederacy. At the beginning of 1864, Lincoln made General Grant commander of all Union armies. Union General William Tecumseh Sherman captured Atlanta, Georgia,[54] and from there started his "March to the Sea" that laid waste to about 20% of the farms in Georgia, until reaching the Atlantic Ocean at Savannah in December 1864.[61] Lee surrendered his Army of Northern Virginia on April 9, 1865, at Appomattox Court House.[54] Based on 1860 census figures, 8% of all white males aged 13 to 43 died in the war, including 6% in the North and an extraordinary 18% in the South.[62]
[edit] Reconstruction and the rise of industrialization (1865–1890)
Main article: History of the United States (1865–1918)
Completion of the Transcontinental Railroad (1869) at First Transcontinental Railroad, by Andrew J. Russell

Reconstruction took place for most of the decade following the Civil War. During this era, the "Reconstruction Amendments" were passed to expand civil rights for black Americans. Those amendments included the Thirteenth Amendment, which outlawed slavery, the Fourteenth Amendment that guaranteed citizenship for all people born or naturalized within U.S. territory, and the Fifteenth Amendment that granted the vote for all men regardless of race. While the Civil Rights Act of 1875 forbade discrimination in the service of public facilities, the Black Codes denied blacks certain privileges readily available to whites.[63] In response to Reconstruction, the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) emerged around the late 1860s as a white-supremacist organization opposed to black civil rights. Increasing hate-motivated violence from groups like the Klan influenced both the Ku Klux Klan Act of 1870 that classified the KKK as a terrorist group[64] and an 1883 Supreme Court decision nullifying the Civil Rights Act of 1875; however, in the Supreme Court case United States v. Cruikshank the Court interpreted the Fourteenth Amendment as regulating only states' decisions regarding civil rights.[65] The case defeated any protection of blacks from terrorist attacks, as did the later case United States v. Harris.[66] During the era, many regions of the southern U.S. were military-governed and often corrupt; Reconstruction ended after the disputed 1876 election between Republican candidate Rutherford B. Hayes and Democratic candidate Samuel J. Tilden. Hayes won the election, and the South soon re-entered the national political scene.[15]

Following was the Gilded Age, a term that author Mark Twain used to describe the period of the late nineteenth century when there had been a dramatic expansion of American industry. Reform of the Age included the Civil Service Act, which mandated a competitive examination for applicants for government jobs. Other important legislation included the Interstate Commerce Act, which ended railroads' discrimination against small shippers, and the Sherman Antitrust Act, which outlawed monopolies in business. Twain believed that this age was corrupted by such elements as land speculators, scandalous politics, and unethical business practices. By century's end, American industrial production and per capita income exceeded those of all other world nations and ranked only behind Great Britain. In response to heavy debts and decreasing farm prices, farmers joined the Populist Party.[67] Later, an unprecedented wave of immigration served both to provide the labor for American industry and create diverse communities in previously undeveloped areas. From 1880 to 1914, peak years of immigration, more than 22 million people migrated to the United States.[68] Abusive industrial practices led to the often violent rise of the labor movement in the United States.[69] Influential figures of the period included John D. Rockefeller and Andrew Carnegie.
[edit] Progressivism, imperialism, and World War I (1890–1918)
Main article: Progressive Era
Mulberry Street, along which Manhattan's Little Italy is centered. Lower East Side, circa 1900.

After the Gilded Age came the Progressive Era, whose followers called for reform over perceived industrial corruption. Viewpoints taken by progressives included greater federal regulation of anti-trust laws and the industries of meat-packing, drugs, and railroads. Four new constitutional amendments—the Sixteenth through Nineteenth—resulted from progressive activism.[70] The era lasted from 1900 to 1918, the year marking the end of World War I.[71]

U.S. Federal government policy, since the James Monroe Administration, had been to move the indigenous population beyond the reach of the federal frontier into a series of Indian reservations. Tribes were generally forced onto small reservations as farmers and ranchers took over their lands.
Ellis Island in 1902, the main immigration port for immigrants entering the United States in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

The United States began its rise to international power in this period with substantial population and industrial growth domestically and numerous military ventures abroad, including the Spanish-American War, which began when the United States blamed the sinking of the USS Maine on Spain. Also at stake were U.S. interests in acquiring Cuba, an island nation fighting for independence from Spanish occupation; Puerto Rico and the Philippines were also two former Spanish colonies seeking liberation. In December 1898, representatives of Spain and the U.S. signed the Treaty of Paris to end the war, with Cuba becoming an independent nation and Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines becoming U.S. territories.[15][72] In 1900, Congress passed the Open Door Policy that at the time required China to grant equal trading access to all foreign nations.[15]

President Woodrow Wilson declared U.S. entry into World War I in April 1917 following a yearlong neutrality policy; the U.S. had previously shown interest in world peace by participating in the Hague Conferences. American participation in the war proved essential to the Allied victory. Wilson also implemented a set of propositions titled the Fourteen Points to ensure peace, but they were denied at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. Isolationist sentiment following the war also blocked the U.S. from participating in the League of Nations, an important part of the Treaty of Versailles.[15]
[edit] Women's suffrage
Main article: History of women's suffrage in the United States
Alice Paul stands before the Woman Suffrage Amendment's ratification banner. She immediately went on to write the Equal Right Amendment, whose passage would become an important goal of the Women's Liberation Movement half a century later.

These years of the early 20th century also saw the strengthening of the Woman Suffrage Movement. The movement had begun with the 1848 Seneca Falls Convention, organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, and the Declaration of Sentiments demanding equal rights for women. The women's rights campaign during "first-wave feminism" was led by Mott, Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, Sojourner Truth, Lucy Stone, and Julia Ward Howe, among others. By the end of the 19th century only several states had granted women full voting rights, though women had made significant legal victories, gaining rights in areas such as property and child custody. In 1875 the Supreme Court ruled women, too, were American citizens (but this did not give them the right to vote).

Around 1912 the Feminist Movement, which had grown sluggish, began to reawaken. Protests became increasingly common as suffragette Alice Paul led parades through the capital and major cities. Paul split from the large National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA), which favored a more moderate approach and supported the Democratic Party and Woodrow Wilson, led by Carrie Chapman Catt, and formed the more militant National Woman's Party. Suffragists were arrested during their "Silent Sentinal" pickets at the White House, the first time such a tactic was used, and were taken as political prisoners. In prison they were tortured and force-fed while on hunger strikes led by Alice Paul. Finally, the suffragette were ordered released from prison, and Wilson addressed the Congress on woman suffrage, urging them to pass a Constitutional amendment enfranchising women, which they did in 1919. It became constitutional law on August 26, 1920, after ratification by the 36th required state. NAWSA became the League of Women Voters and the National Woman's Party began lobbying for full equality and the Equal Rights Amendment which would pass Congress during the second wave of the women's movement in 1972. Following ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment, a U.S. Court ruled the arrests of the over two hundred suffragists as unconstitutional, and the amendment was upheld by the Supreme Court after a legal challenge.
[edit] Post-World War I and the Great Depression (1918–1940)
Main article: History of the United States (1918–1945)

Following World War I, the U.S. grew steadily in stature as an economic and military world power. The United States Senate did not ratify the Treaty of Versailles imposed by its Allies on the defeated Central Powers; instead, the United States chose to pursue unilateralism, if not isolationism.[73] The aftershock of Russia's October Revolution resulted in real fears of communism in the United States, leading to a three-year Red Scare and the U.S. lost 675,000 people to the Spanish flu pandemic in 1918.[74]
Prohibition agents destroying barrels of alcohol in Chicago, 1921

In 1920, the manufacture, sale, import and export of alcohol was prohibited by the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Prohibition encouraged illegal breweries and dealers to make substantial amounts of money selling alcohol illegally. The Prohibition ended in 1933, a failure. Additionally, the KKK re-formed during that decade and gathered nearly 4.5 million members by 1924, and the U.S. government passed the Immigration Act of 1924 restricting foreign immigration.[75] The 1920s were also known as the Roaring Twenties, due to the great economic prosperity during this period. Jazz became popular among the younger generation, and thus was also called the Jazz Age.

During most of the 1920s, the United States enjoyed a period of unbalanced prosperity: farm prices and wages fell, while new industries, and industrial profits grew. The boom was fueled by an inflated stock market, which later led to a crash on October 29, 1929.[76] The Hawley-Smoot Tariff, the Dust Bowl, and the ensuing Great Depression led to government efforts to restart the economy and help its victims with Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal. The recovery was rapid in all areas except unemployment, which remained fairly high until 1940.
[edit] World War II (1941–1945)
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Main articles: World War II and United States home front during World War II

As with World War I, the United States did not enter World War II until after the rest of the active Allied countries had done so. The United States's first contribution to the war was simultaneously to cut off the oil and raw material supplies needed by Japan to maintain its offensive in China, and to increase military and financial aid to China. Contribution came to the Allies in September 1940 in the form of the Lend-Lease program with Britain.

On December 7, 1941 Japan launched a surprise attack on the American naval base in Pearl Harbor, citing America's recent trade embargo as justification. The following day, Franklin D. Roosevelt successfully urged a joint session of Congress to declare war on Japan, calling December 7, 1941 "a date which will live in infamy". Four days after the attack on Pearl Harbor, on December 11, Nazi Germany declared war on the United States, drawing the country into a two-theater war.
[edit] Battle against Germany
Further information: Europe first

Upon entering the war, the United States and its allies decided to concentrate the bulk of their efforts on fighting Hitler in Europe, while maintaining a defensive position in the Pacific until Hitler was defeated. The United States's first step was to set up a large airforce in Britain to concentrate on bombing raids into Germany itself. The American Air force relied on the B-17 Flying Fortress as its primary heavy bomber. Britain had ceased its daylight bombing raids, due to heavy casualties inflicted by the Luftwaffe. The USAAF suffered similar high losses until the introduction of the P-51 Mustang as a long range escort fighter for the bombers.
Landing at Normandy at Battle of Normandy, by Robert F. Sargent, United States Army

The American army's first ground action was fighting alongside the British, Australian and New Zealand armies in North Africa. By May 1943, the British 8th Army had expelled the Germans from North Africa and the Allies controlled this vital link until the end of the war. The American navy also played an active role in the Atlantic protecting the convoys bringing vital American war material to Britain. By midway through 1943, the Allies were fighting the war from Britain with unbroken supply lines, while at the same time Hitler's armies were very much on the back foot, with heavy bombing taking its toll on production.

By early 1944, a planned invasion of Western Europe was underway. What followed on June 6, 1944, was Operation Overlord, or D-Day. The largest war armada ever assembled landed on the beaches of Normandy and began the penetration of Western Europe that eventually overthrew Hitler and Nazi Germany. Following the landing at Normandy, the Americans contributed greatly to the outcome of the war, with dogged fighting in the Battle of the Ardennes and the Battle of the Bulge resulting in Allied victories against the Germans. The battles took a heavy toll on the Americans, who lost 19,000 men during the Battle of the Bulge alone. The allied bombing raids on Germany increased to unprecedented levels after the D-Day invasion, with over 70% of all bombs dropped on Germany occurring after this date. On April 30, 1945, with Berlin completely overrun with Russian forces and his country in tatters, Adolf Hitler committed suicide. On May 8, 1945, the war with Germany was over, following its unconditional surrender to the Allied forces.
[edit] Battle against Japan
Main article: Pacific War

Due to the United States commitment to defeating Hitler in Europe, the first years of the war against Japan was largely a defensive battle with the United States Navy attempting to prevent the Japanese Navy from asserting dominance of the Pacific region. Initially, Japan won the majority of its battles in a short period of time. Japan quickly defeated and created military bases in Guam, Thailand, Malaya, Hong Kong, Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and Burma. This was done virtually unopposed and with quicker speed than that of the German Blitzkrieg during the early stages of the war. This was important for Japan, as it had only 10% of the homeland industrial production capacity of the United States.
Douglas MacArthur lands at the Battle of Leyte, by U.S. Army Signal Corps

The turning point of the war was the Battle of Midway in June 1942. Following this, the Americans began fighting towards China where they could build an airbase suitable to commence bombing of mainland Japan with its B-29 Superfortress fleet. The Americans began by selecting smaller, lesser defended islands as targets as opposed to attacking the major Japanese strongholds. During this period, they inadvertently triggered what would become their most comprehensive victory in the entire war.

The Pacific war became the largest naval conflict in history. The American Navy emerged victorious, after at one point being stretched near to the breaking point, with almost complete destruction of the Japanese Navy. The American forces were then poised for an invasion of the Japanese mainland, to force the Japanese into unconditional surrender. On April 12, 1945, President Franklin D. Roosevelt died and Vice President Harry S. Truman was sworn in as the 33rd President of the United States. The use of atomic weapons against Japan was subsequently authorized. The decision to use nuclear weapons to end the conflict has been one of the most controversial decisions of the war. Supporters of the use of the bombs argue that an invasion would have cost an enormous numbers of lives, while opponents argue that the large number of civilian casualties resulting from the bombings was unjustified. The first bomb was dropped on Hiroshima on August 6, 1945, and the second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki on August 9, 1945. On August 15, 1945, the Japanese surrendered unconditionally, ending World War II.
[edit] The Cold War begins (1945–1964)
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Main article: History of the United States (1945–1964)
President Kennedy's address on Civil Rights, June 11, 1963.

Following World War II, the United States emerged as one of the two dominant superpowers. The U.S. Senate, on December 4, 1945, approved U.S. participation in the United Nations (UN), which marked a turn away from the traditional isolationism of the U.S. and toward more international involvement. The post-war era in the United States was defined internationally by the beginning of the Cold War, in which the United States and the Soviet Union attempted to expand their influence at the expense of the other, checked by each side's massive nuclear arsenal and the doctrine of mutual assured destruction. The result was a series of conflicts during this period including the Korean War and the tense nuclear showdown of the Cuban Missile Crisis. Within the United States, the Cold War prompted concerns about Communist influence, and also resulted in government efforts to focus mathematics and science toward efforts such as the space race.

In the decades after World War II, the United States became a global influence in economic, political, military, cultural, and technological affairs. Beginning in the 1950s, middle-class culture had a growing obsession with consumer goods.

John F. Kennedy was elected President in 1960. Known for his charisma, he is so far the only Roman Catholic to be President. The Kennedys brought a new life and vigor to the atmosphere of the White House. During his time in office, the Cold War reached its height with the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962. He was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, on November 22, 1963 by Lee Harvey Oswald.
[edit] The Civil Rights Movement (1955–1970)
Main article: African American Civil Rights Movement
Martin Luther King gives his I Have a Dream speech at the 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom.

Meanwhile, the American people completed a great migration from farms into the cities and experienced a period of sustained economic expansion. At the same time, institutionalized racism across the United States, but especially in the American South, was increasingly challenged by the growing Civil Rights movement. The activism of African American leaders Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King, Jr. led to the Montgomery Bus Boycott, which launched the movement. For years African Americans would struggle with violence against them, but would achieve great steps towards equality with Supreme Court decisions, including Brown v. Board of Education and Loving v. Virginia, the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Voting Rights Act of 1965, and the Fair Housing Act of 1968, which ended the Jim Crow laws that legalized racial segregation between Whites and Blacks. Martin Luther King, Jr., who had won the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts to achieve equality of the races, was assassinated in 1968. Following his death other leaders led the movement, most notably King's widow, Coretta Scott King, who was also active, like her husband, in the Opposition to the Vietnam War, and in the Women's Liberation Movement. Over the first nine months of 1967, 128 American cities suffered 164 riots.[77] The late 1960s and early 1970s saw the strengthening of Black Power, however the decade would ultimately bring about positive strides toward integration.
[edit] The Women's Movement (1963–1982)
Main article: Feminist Movement in the United States
Gloria Steinem at a meeting of the Women's Action Alliance, 1972.

A new consciousness of the inequality of American women began sweeping the nation, starting with the 1963 publication of Betty Friedan's best-seller, The Feminine Mystique, which explained how many housewives felt trapped and unfulfilled, assaulted American culture for its creation of the notion that women could only find fulfillment through their roles as wives, mothers, and keepers of the home, and argued that women were just as able as men to do every type of job. In 1966 Friedan and others established the National Organization for Women, or NOW, to act as an NAACP for women. Protests began, and the new "Women's Liberation Movement" grew in size and power, gained much media attention, and, by 1968, had replaced the Civil Rights Movement as the U.S.'s main social revolution. Marches, parades, rallies, boycotts, and pickets brought out thousands, sometimes millions; Friedan's Women's Strike for Equality (1970) was a nation-wide success. The Movement was factioned early on, however (NOW on the left, the Women's Equity Action League (WEAL) on the right, the National Women's Political Caucus (NWPC) in the center, and more radical groups formed by younger women on the far left). Along with Friedan, Gloria Steinem was an important feminist leader, co-founding the NWPC, the Women's Action Alliance, and editing the Movement's magazine, Ms. The proposed Equal Rights Amendment to the Constitution, passed by Congress in 1972 and favored by about seventy percent of the American public, failed to be ratified in 1982, with only three more states needed to make it law. However many federal laws (i.e. those equalizing pay, employment, education, employment opportunites, credit, ending pregnancy discrimination, and requiring NASA, the Military Academies, and other organizations to admit women), state laws (i.e. those ending spousal abuse and marital rape), Supreme Court rulings (i.e. ruling the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment applied to women), and state ERAs established women's equal status under the law, and social custom and consciousness began to change, accepting women's equality. The controversial issue of abortion, legalized in 1973 is still a point of feminist debate today.
[edit] The Counterculture Revolution and Cold War Détente (1964–1980)
Main article: History of the United States (1964–1980)

Amid the Cold War, the United States entered the Vietnam War, whose growing unpopularity fed already existing social movements, including those among women, minorities and young people. President Lyndon B. Johnson's Great Society social programs and the judicial activism of the Warren Court added to the wide range of social reform during the 1960s and 1970s. Feminism and the environmental movement became political forces, and progress continued toward civil rights for all Americans. The Counterculture Revolution swept through the nation and much of the western world in the late sixties and early seventies, dividing the already hostile environment but also bringing forth more liberated social views.
United States Navy F-4 Phantom II intercepts a Soviet Tu-95 Bear D aircraft in the early 1970s

Johnson was succeeded by President Richard Nixon in 1969, who intitially escalated the Vietnam War but soon was able to negotiate a peace treaty in 1973, effectively ending American involvement in the war. The war had cost the lives of 58,000 American troops and millions of Vietnamese. Nixon used a conflict in the Eastern Bloc between the Soviet Union and China to the advantage of the United States, bolstering relations with the People's Republic of China.[78] A new era of Cold War relations known as détente (cooperation) was begun.[79] The OPEC oil embargo led to a period of slow economic growth in 1973. Nixon's administration was brought to an ignominious close with the political scandal of Watergate in August 1974. During the years of his successor, Gerald Ford, the American-backed South Vietnamese government collapsed.

Jimmy Carter was elected in 1976 on the notion that he was not a part of the Washington political establishment.[80] The U.S. was afflicted with a recession, an energy crisis, slow economic growth, high unemployment, and high inflation coupled with high interest rates (the term stagflation was coined). On the world stage, Carter brokered the Camp David Accords between Israel and Egypt. In 1979, Iranian students stormed the U.S. embassy in Tehran and took 52 Americans hostage. Carter lost the 1980 election to Republican Ronald Reagan, whose campaign message advertised that his presidency would bring "Morning in America."[81]
[edit] The end of the Cold War (1980–1991)
Main article: History of the United States (1980–1991)
Ronald Reagan at the Brandenburg Gate challenges Gorbachev to tear down the Berlin Wall in 1987, shortly before the end of the Cold War

Ronald Reagan produced a major realignment with his 1980 and 1984 landslides. In 1980, the Reagan coalition was possible because of Democratic losses in most social-economic groups. "Reagan Democrats" were those who usually voted Democratic, but were attracted by Reagan's policies, personality and leadership, notably his social conservatism and hawkish foreign policy. Reagan's economic policies (dubbed "Reaganomics") and the implementation of the Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 lowered income taxes from 70% to 28% over the course of seven years. Reagan continued to downsize government taxation and regulation.[82] The U.S. experienced a recession in 1982; unemployment and business failures soon entered rates close to Depression-era levels. These negative trends reversed the following year, when the inflation rate decreased from 11% to 2%, the unemployment rate decreased to 7.5%, and the economic growth rate increased from 4.5 to 7.2%.[83]

Reagan took a hard line against the Soviet Union, proclaiming it to be the Evil Empire. Reagan ordered a massive buildup of the U.S. military, incurring a costly budget deficit. Reagan introduced a complicated missile defense system known as the Strategic Defense Initiative (dubbed "Star Wars" by opponents) in which the U.S. could, in theory, shoot down missiles by means of laser systems in space. Though it was never fully developed or deployed,[84] the Soviets were genuinely concerned about the possible effects of the program[85] and the research and technologies of SDI paved the way for the anti-ballistic missile systems of today.[86] The Reagan administration also provided covert funding and assistance to anti-Communist resistance movements worldwide. Reagan's interventions against Grenada and Libya were popular in the U.S., though his backing of the Contra rebels was mired in controversy.[87] The arms-for-hostages scandal led to the convictions of such figures as Oliver North and John Poindexter.[88] He shared many common views and goals with friend and ally Margaret Thatcher, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.[89]

Reagan met with Soviet Leader Mikhail Gorbachev, who ascended to power in 1985, four times, and their summit conferences led to the signing of the INF Treaty. Gorbachev tried to save Communism in the Soviet Union first by ending the expensive arms race with America,[90] then by shedding the East European empire in 1989. The Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, ending the US-Soviet Cold War.
[edit] The "World Superpower" (1991–present)
USAF aircraft fly over Kuwaiti oil fires during the Gulf War
Main article: History of the United States (1991–present)

After the fall of the Soviet Union, the United States emerged as the world's sole remaining superpower and continued to involve itself in military action overseas, including the 1991 Gulf War. Following his election in 1992, President Bill Clinton oversaw unprecedented gains in securities values, a side effect of the digital revolution and new business opportunities created by the Internet (see Internet bubble). The 1990s saw one of the longest periods of economic expansion. Under Clinton an attempt to universalize health care, led by First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton failed after almost two years of work on the controversial plan, however Hillary Rodham Clinton did succeed, along with a bipartisan coalition of members of congress, to establish the Children's Health Insurance Program.[91]

The regime of Saddam Hussein in Iraq proved a continuing problem for the UN and Iraq's neighbors in its refusal to account for previously known stockpiles of chemical and biological weapons, its violations of UN resolutions, and its support for terrorism against Israel and other countries. After the 1991 Gulf War, the US, French, and British militaries began patrolling the Iraqi no-fly zones to protect Iraq's Kurdish minority and Shi’ite Arab population – both of which suffered attacks from the Hussein regime before and after the 1991 Gulf War – in Iraq's northern and southern regions, respectively.[92] In the aftermath of Operation Desert Fox during December 1998, Iraq announced that it would no longer respect the no-fly zones and resumed its efforts in shooting down Allied aircraft.[93]

During the 1990s the al-Qaeda terrorist network and other Islamic fundamentalist groups attempted terrorist attacks against the United States and other nations. In 1993, Ramzi Yousef, a Kuwaiti national, and suspected al-Qaeda operative, planted explosives in the underground garage of One World Trade Center and detonated them, killing six people and injuring thousands. Later that year in the Battle of Mogadishu, US Army Rangers engaged Somali militias supported by al-Qaeda in an extended firefight that cost the lives of 19 soldiers. President Clinton subsequently withdrew US combat forces from Somalia (there originally to support UN relief efforts)[94]. Terrorist attacks occurred in the 1996 Khobar Towers bombing in Saudi Arabia, and the 1998 United States embassy bombings in Tanzania and Kenya. There was an attempted bombing at Los Angeles International Airport and other attempts of acts of terrorism during the 2000 millennium attack plots. In Yemen the USS Cole was bombed in October 2000, which the government associated with Osama bin Laden's al-Qaeda terrorist network.[95]

US responses to terrorist attacks included limited cruise missile strikes on Afghanistan and Sudan (August 1998), which failed to stop al-Qaeda's leaders and their Taliban supporters. Also in 1998, President Clinton signed the Iraq Liberation Act which called for regime change in Iraq on the basis of Saddam Hussein's possession of weapons of mass destruction, oppression of Iraqi citizens and attacks upon other Middle Eastern countries.[96]

Al-Qaeda and other Islamic fundamentalist groups were not the only groups responsible for terrorism during this time. In 1995, a domestic terrorist bombing took place at a federal building in Oklahoma City, which killed 168 people, and was the biggest terrorist attack on US soil since World War II at the time. The perpetrators, Timothy McVeigh and Terry Nichols, objected to the federal government and in particular sought revenge for the sieges at Ruby Ridge (1992) and Waco (1993).[97]

In 1998, Clinton was impeached for charges of perjury and obstruction of justice that arose from lying about a sexual relationship with White House intern Monica Lewinsky. He was the second president to have been impeached. The House of Representatives voted 228 to 206 on December 19 to impeach Clinton,[98] but on February 12, 1999, the Senate voted 55 to 45 to acquit Clinton of the charges.[99]

The presidential election in 2000 between George W. Bush (R) and Al Gore (D) was one of the closest in the U.S. history, and helped lay the seeds for political polarization to come. Although Bush won the majority of electoral votes, Gore won the majority of the popular vote. In the days following Election Day, the state of Florida entered dispute over the counting of votes due to technical issues over certain Democratic votes in some counties.[100] The Supreme Court case Bush v. Gore was decided on December 12, 2000, ending the recount with a 5–4 vote and certifying Bush as president.[101]
New York under attack in the September 11 attacks
George W. Bush in a televised address from the USS Abraham Lincoln.

At the beginning of the new millennium, the United States found itself attacked by Islamic terrorism, with the September 11, 2001 attacks in which 19 extremists hijacked four transcontinental airliners and intentionally crashed two of them into the twin towers of the World Trade Center and one into the Pentagon. The passengers on the fourth plane, United Airlines Flight 93, revolted causing the plane to crash into a field in Somerset County, Pennsylvania. According to the 9/11 Commission Report, that plane was intended to hit the US Capitol Building in Washington. The twin towers of the World Trade Center collapsed, destroying the entire complex. The United States soon found large amounts of evidence that suggested that the terrorist group al-Qaeda, spearheaded by Osama bin Laden, was responsible for the attacks.

In response to the attacks, under the administration of President George W. Bush, the United States (with the military support of NATO and the political support of some of the international community) launched Operation Enduring Freedom which overthrew the Taliban regime in Afghanistan which had protected and harbored bin Laden and al-Qaeda. With the support of large bipartisan majorities, the US Congress passed the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq Resolution of 2002. With a coalition of other countries including Britain, Spain, Australia, Japan and Poland, in March 2003 President Bush ordered an invasion of Iraq dubbed Operation Iraqi Freedom which led to the overthrow and capture of Saddam Hussein. Using the language of 1998 Iraq Liberation Act and the Clinton Administration, the reasons cited by the Bush administration for the invasion included the spreading of democracy, the elimination of weapons of mass destruction[102] (a key demand of the UN as well, though later investigations found parts of the intelligence reports to be inaccurate)[103] and the liberation of the Iraqi people.[104] This second invasion fueled protest marches in many parts of the world.

In August 2005, Hurricane Katrina flooded parts of the city of New Orleans and heavily damaged other areas of the gulf coast, including major damage to the Mississippi coast. The preparation and the response of the government were criticized as ineffective and slow.[105]

By 2006, rising prices saw Americans become increasingly conscious of the nation's dependence on supplies of petroleum for energy, with President Bush admitting a U.S. "addiction" to oil.[106] The possibility of serious economic disruption, should conflict overseas or declining production interrupt the flow, could not be ignored, given the instability in the Middle East and other oil-producing regions of the world. Many proposals and pilot projects for replacement energy sources, from ethanol to wind power and solar power, received more capital funding and were pursued more seriously in the 2000s than in previous decades. The 2006 midterm elections saw Congresswoman Nancy Pelosi become Speaker of the United States House of Representatives and the highest ranking woman in the history of the U.S. government.[107]

In addition to military efforts abroad, in the aftermath of 9/11 the Bush Administration increased domestic efforts to prevent future attacks. A new cabinet level agency called the United States Department of Homeland Security was created to lead and coordinate federal counterterrorism activities. The USA PATRIOT Act removed legal restrictions on information sharing between federal law enforcement and intelligence services and allowed for the investigation of suspected terrorists using means similar to those in place for other types of criminals. A new Terrorist Finance Tracking Program monitored the movements of terrorists' financial resources but was discontinued after being revealed by The New York Times.[108] Telecommunication usage by known and suspected terrorists was studied through the NSA electronic surveillance program.

Since 9/11, Islamic extremists made various attempts to attack the US homeland, with varying levels of organization and skill. For example, in 2001 vigilant passengers aboard a transatlantic flight to Miami prevented Richard Reid from detonating an explosive device.

After months of brutal violence against Iraqi civilians by Sunni and Shi’ite terrorist groups and militias—including al-Qaeda in Iraq—in January 2007 President Bush presented a new strategy for Operation Iraqi Freedom based upon counter-insurgency theories and tactics developed by General David Petraeus. The Iraq War troop surge of 2007 was part of this "new way forward"[109] and has been credited by some[who?] with a dramatic decrease in violence and an increase in political and communal reconciliation in Iraq.

As of 2009, debates continue over abortion, gun control, same-sex marriage, immigration reform, and the ongoing war in Iraq. Although the new Democratic Congressional majority promised to withdraw U.S. forces from Iraq, Congress continues to fund efforts in both Iraq and Afghanistan (however a withdrawal agreement has been agreed upon between the US and Iraqi governments). In the area of foreign policy, the U.S. maintains ongoing talks, led by United States Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton, with North Korea over its nuclear weapons program, as well as with Israel and the Palestinian Authority over a two-state solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict; the Palestinian-Israeli talks began in 2007, an effort spearheaded by United States Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice.[110] The George W. Bush administration also increased allegations implicating Iran, and more recently Syria, in the development of weapons of mass destruction.

In December 2007, the United States entered the longest post-World War II recession,[111] which included a housing market correction, a subprime mortgage crisis, soaring oil prices, and a declining dollar value.[112] In February 2008, 63,000 jobs were lost, a 5-year record for a single month.[113][114] In September 2008, the crisis became much worse beginning with the government takeover of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac followed by the collapse of Lehman Brothers.[115] This economic crisis was considered the worst financial crisis since the Great Depression.[116][117] By the end of 2008, the U.S. had lost a total of 2.6 million jobs.

In the presidential election of 2008, Senator Barack Obama, having narrowly defeated Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton for the Democratic nomination, ran on a platform of "Hope and Change". This, coupled with the economic crisis, helped aid his and running-mate Joe Biden's victory against the Republican ticket of Senator John McCain and Governor Sarah Palin. On November 4, Obama became the first African American to be elected President of the United States; he was sworn into office as the 44th President on January 20, 2009.

bermuda triangle

2009-11-04T20:07:00.000-08:00

Bermuda Triangle
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For other uses, see Bermuda Triangle (disambiguation).
Bermuda Triangle
Bermuda Triangle.png
Borders of the Bermuda Triangle
Classification
Grouping: Paranormal places
Description
Also known as: Devil's Triangle
Country: International waters, The Bahamas
Status: Urban legend

The Bermuda Triangle, also known as the Devil's Triangle, is a region in the western part of the North Atlantic Ocean in which a number of aircraft and surface vessels are alleged to have mysteriously disappeared and cannot be explained as human error, piracy, equipment failure, or natural disasters. Popular culture has attributed some of these disappearances to the paranormal, a suspension of the laws of physics, or activity by extraterrestrial beings.[1]

A substantial body of documentation reveals, however, that a significant portion of the allegedly mysterious incidents have been inaccurately reported or embellished by later authors, and numerous official agencies have stated that the number and nature of disappearances in the region is similar to any other area of ocean.[2][3][4]
Contents
[hide]

* 1 The Triangle area
* 2 History
o 2.1 Origins
o 2.2 Larry Kusche
o 2.3 Further responses
* 3 Supernatural explanations
* 4 Natural explanations
o 4.1 Compass variations
o 4.2 Deliberate acts of destruction
o 4.3 Gulf Stream
o 4.4 Human error
o 4.5 Hurricanes
o 4.6 Methane hydrates
o 4.7 Rogue waves
* 5 Notable incidents
o 5.1 Flight 19
o 5.2 Mary Celeste
o 5.3 Ellen Austin
o 5.4 USS Cyclops
o 5.5 Theodosia Burr Alston
o 5.6 Spray
o 5.7 Carroll A. Deering
o 5.8 Douglas DC-3
o 5.9 Star Tiger and Star Ariel
o 5.10 KC-135 Stratotankers
o 5.11 SS Marine Sulphur Queen
o 5.12 Raifuku Maru
o 5.13 Connemara IV
o 5.14 Carolyn Cascio
* 6 Triangle authors
* 7 See also
* 8 References
* 9 Other sources
o 9.1 Newspaper articles
+ 9.1.1 Flight 19
+ 9.1.2 Raifuku Maru
+ 9.1.3 SS Cotopaxi
+ 9.1.4 USS Cyclops (AC-4)
+ 9.1.5 Carroll A. Deering
+ 9.1.6 Wreckers
+ 9.1.7 S.S. Suduffco
+ 9.1.8 Star Tiger and Star Ariel
+ 9.1.9 DC-3 Airliner NC16002 disappearance
+ 9.1.10 Harvey Conover and Revonoc
+ 9.1.11 KC-135 Stratotankers
+ 9.1.12 B-52 Bomber (Pogo 22)
+ 9.1.13 Charter vessel Sno'Boy
+ 9.1.14 SS Marine Sulphur Queen
+ 9.1.15 SS Sylvia L. Ossa
o 9.2 Website links
o 9.3 Books
* 10 External links

The Triangle area
The area of the Triangle varies by author

The boundaries of the triangle cover the Straits of Florida, the Bahamas and the entire Caribbean island area and the Atlantic east to the Azores; others[who?] add to it the Gulf of Mexico. The more familiar triangular boundary in most written works has as its points somewhere on the Atlantic coast of Miami, San Juan, Puerto Rico; and the mid-Atlantic island of Bermuda, with most of the accidents concentrated along the southern boundary around the Bahamas and the Florida Straits.

The area is one of the most heavily-sailed shipping lanes in the world, with ships crossing through it daily for ports in the Americas, Europe, and the Caribbean Islands. Cruise ships are also plentiful, and pleasure craft regularly go back and forth between Florida and the islands. It is also a heavily flown route for commercial and private aircraft heading towards Florida, the Caribbean, and South America from points north.
History
Origins

The earliest allegation of unusual disappearances in the Bermuda area appeared in a September 16, 1950 Associated Press article by E.V.W. Jones.[5] Two years later, Fate magazine published "Sea Mystery At Our Back Door",[6] a short article by George X. Sand covering the loss of several planes and ships, including the loss of Flight 19, a group of five U.S. Navy TBM Avenger bombers on a training mission. Sand's article was the first to lay out the now-familiar triangular area where the losses took place. Flight 19 alone would be covered in the April 1962 issue of American Legion Magazine.[7] It was claimed that the flight leader had been heard saying "We are entering white water, nothing seems right. We don't know where we are, the water is green, no white." It was also claimed that officials at the Navy board of inquiry stated that the planes "flew off to Mars." Sand's article was the first to suggest a supernatural element to the Flight 19 incident. In the February 1964 issue of Argosy, Vincent Gaddis's article "The Deadly Bermuda Triangle" argued that Flight 19 and other disappearances were part of a pattern of strange events in the region.[8] The next year, Gaddis explanded this article into a book, Invisible Horizons.[9]

Others would follow with their own works, elaborating on Gaddis's ideas: John Wallace Spencer (Limbo of the Lost, 1969, repr. 1973);[10] Charles Berlitz (The Bermuda Triangle, 1974);[11] Richard Winer (The Devil's Triangle, 1974),[12] and many others, all keeping to some of the same supernatural elements outlined by Eckert.[13]
Larry Kusche

Lawrence David Kusche, a research librarian from Arizona State University and author of The Bermuda Triangle Mystery: Solved (1975)[14] argued that many claims of Gaddis and subsequent writers were often exaggerated, dubious or unverifiable. Kusche's research revealed a number of inaccuracies and inconsistencies between Berlitz's accounts and statements from eyewitnesses, participants, and others involved in the initial incidents. Kusche noted cases where pertinent information went unreported, such as the disappearance of round-the-world yachtsman Donald Crowhurst, which Berlitz had presented as a mystery, despite clear evidence to the contrary. Another example was the ore-carrier recounted by Berlitz as lost without trace three days out of an Atlantic port when it had been lost three days out of a port with the same name in the Pacific Ocean. Kusche also argued that a large percentage of the incidents which have sparked the Triangle's mysterious influence actually occurred well outside it. Often his research was simple: he would go over period newspapers of the dates of reported incidents and find reports on possibly relevant events like unusual weather, that were never mentioned in the disappearance stories.

Kusche concluded that:

* The number of ships and aircraft reported missing in the area was not significantly greater, proportionally speaking, than in any other part of the ocean.
* In an area frequented by tropical storms, the number of disappearances that did occur were, for the most part, neither disproportionate, unlikely, nor mysterious; furthermore, Berlitz and other writers would often fail to mention such storms.
* The numbers themselves had been exaggerated by sloppy research. A boat listed as missing would be reported, but its eventual (if belated) return to port may not have been reported.
* Some disappearances had in fact, never happened. One plane crash was said to have taken place in 1937 off Daytona Beach, Florida, in front of hundreds of witnesses; a check of the local papers revealed nothing.
* The Legend of the Bermuda Triangle is a manufactured mystery, perpetuated by writers who either purposely or unknowingly made use of misconceptions, faulty reasoning, and sensationalism.[14]

Further responses

When the UK Channel 4 television program "The Bermuda Triangle" (c. 1992) was being produced by John Simmons of Geofilms for the Equinox Programme, the marine insurer Lloyd's of London was asked if an unusually large number of ships had sunk in the Bermuda Triangle area. Lloyd's of London determined that large numbers of ships had not sunk there.[15]

United States Coast Guard records confirm their conclusion. In fact, the number of supposed disappearances is relatively insignificant considering the number of ships and aircraft which pass through on a regular basis.[14]

The Coast Guard is also officially skeptical of the Triangle, noting that they collect and publish, through their inquiries, much documentation contradicting many of the incidents written about by the Triangle authors. In one such incident involving the 1972 explosion and sinking of the tanker SS V. A. Fogg in the Gulf of Mexico, the Coast Guard photographed the wreck and recovered several bodies,[16] in contrast with one Triangle author's claim that all the bodies had vanished, with the exception of the captain, who was found sitting in his cabin at his desk, clutching a coffee cup.[10]

The NOVA / Horizon episode The Case of the Bermuda Triangle (1976-06-27) was highly critical, stating that "When we've gone back to the original sources or the people involved, the mystery evaporates. Science does not have to answer questions about the Triangle because those questions are not valid in the first place. ... Ships and planes behave in the Triangle the same way they behave everywhere else in the world."[17]

Skeptical researchers, such as Ernest Taves[18] and Barry Singer,[19] have noted how mysteries and the paranormal are very popular and profitable. This has led to the production of vast amounts of material on topics such as the Bermuda Triangle. They were able to show that some of the pro-paranormal material is often misleading or inaccurate, but its producers continue to market it. Accordingly, they have claimed that the market is biased in favour of books, TV specials, etc. which support the Triangle mystery, and against well-researched material if it espouses a skeptical viewpoint.

Finally, if the Triangle is assumed to cross land, such as parts of Puerto Rico, the Bahamas, or Bermuda itself, there is no evidence for the disappearance of any land-based vehicles or persons.[citation needed] The city of Freeport, located inside the Triangle, operates a major shipyard and an airport which annually handles 50,000 flights, and is visited by over a million tourists a year.
Supernatural explanations

Triangle writers have used a number of supernatural concepts to explain the events. One explanation pins the blame on leftover technology from the mythical lost continent of Atlantis. Sometimes connected to the Atlantis story is the submerged rock formation known as the Bimini Road off the island of Bimini in the Bahamas, which is in the Triangle by some definitions. Followers of the purported psychic Edgar Cayce take his prediction that evidence of Atlantis would be found in 1968 as referring to the discovery of the Bimini Road. Believers describe the formation as a road, wall, or other structure, though geologists consider it to be of natural origin.[20]

Other writers attribute the events to UFOs.[21] This idea was used by Steven Spielberg for his science fiction film Close Encounters of the Third Kind, which features the lost Flight 19 as alien abductees.

Charles Berlitz, grandson of a distinguished linguist and author of various additional books on anomalous phenomena, has kept in line with this extraordinary explanation, and attributed the losses in the Triangle to anomalous or unexplained forces.[11]
Natural explanations
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Compass variations

Compass problems are one of the cited phrases in many Triangle incidents. While some have theorized that unusual local magnetic anomalies may exist in the area,[22] such anomalies have not been shown to exist. Compasses have natural magnetic variations in relation to the Magnetic poles. For example, in the United States the only places where magnetic (compass) north and geographic (true) north are exactly the same are on a line running from Wisconsin to the Gulf of Mexico. Navigators have known this for centuries. But the public may not be as informed, and think there is something mysterious about a compass "changing" across an area as large as the Triangle, which it naturally will.[14]
Deliberate acts of destruction

Deliberate acts of destruction can fall into two categories: acts of war, and acts of piracy. Records in enemy files have been checked for numerous losses; while many sinkings have been attributed to surface raiders or submarines during the World Wars and documented in the various command log books, many others which have been suspected as falling in that category have not been proven. It is suspected that the loss of USS Cyclops in 1918, as well as her sister ships Proteus and Nereus in World War II, were attributed to submarines, but no such link has been found in the German records.

Piracy, as defined by the taking of a ship or small boat on the high seas, is an act which continues to this day. While piracy for cargo theft is more common in the western Pacific and Indian oceans, drug smugglers do steal pleasure boats for smuggling operations, and may have been involved in crew and yacht disappearances in the Caribbean. Piracy in the Caribbean was common from about 1560 to the 1760s, and famous pirates included Edward Teach (Blackbeard) and Jean Lafitte.[citation needed]
False-color image of the Gulf Stream flowing north through the western Atlantic Ocean. (NASA)
Gulf Stream

The Gulf Stream is an ocean current that originates in the Gulf of Mexico, and then through the Straits of Florida, into the North Atlantic. In essence, it is a river within an ocean, and like a river, it can and does carry floating objects. It has a surface velocity of up to about 2.5 metres per second (5.6 mph).[23] A small plane making a water landing or a boat having engine trouble can be carried away from its reported position by the current.
Human error

One of the most cited explanations in official inquiries as to the loss of any aircraft or vessel is human error.[24] Whether deliberate or accidental, humans have been known to make mistakes resulting in catastrophe, and losses within the Bermuda Triangle are no exception. For example, the Coast Guard cited a lack of proper training for the cleaning of volatile benzene residue as a reason for the loss of the tanker SS V. A. Fogg in 1972[citation needed]. Human stubbornness may have caused businessman Harvey Conover to lose his sailing yacht, the Revonoc, as he sailed into the teeth of a storm south of Florida on January 1, 1958.[25] Many losses remain inconclusive owing to the lack of wreckage which could be studied, a fact cited on many official reports.
Hurricanes

Hurricanes are powerful storms which are spawned in tropical waters, and have historically been responsible for thousands of lives lost and billions of dollars in damage. The sinking of Francisco de Bobadilla's Spanish fleet in 1502 was the first recorded instance of a destructive hurricane. These storms have in the past caused a number of incidents related to the Triangle.
Methane hydrates
Main article: Methane clathrate
Worldwide distribution of confirmed or inferred offshore gas hydrate-bearing sediments, 1996.
Source: USGS

An explanation for some of the disappearances has focused on the presence of vast fields of methane hydrates (a form of natural gas) on the continental shelves.[26] Laboratory experiments carried out in Australia have proven that bubbles can, indeed, sink a scale model ship by decreasing the density of the water;[27] any wreckage consequently rising to the surface would be rapidly dispersed by the Gulf Stream. It has been hypothesized that periodic methane eruptions (sometimes called "mud volcanoes") may produce regions of frothy water that are no longer capable of providing adequate buoyancy for ships. If this were the case, such an area forming around a ship could cause it to sink very rapidly and without warning.

Publications by the USGS describe large stores of undersea hydrates worldwide, including the Blake Ridge area, off the southeastern United States coast.[28] However, according to another of their papers, no large releases of gas hydrates are believed to have occurred in the Bermuda Triangle for the past 15,000 years.[15]

It should also be noted that other areas of undersea methane hydrates are not reported to give rise to similar incidents as the Bermuda Triangle, also that bubbles of underwater gas would not account for aircraft disappearances.
Rogue waves

In various oceans around the world, rogue waves have caused ships to sink[29] and oil platforms to topple.[30] These waves are considered to be a mystery and until recently were believed to be a myth.[31][32] However, rogue waves don't account for the missing aircraft.
Notable incidents
Main article: List of Bermuda Triangle incidents
Flight 19
US Navy TBF Grumman Avenger flight, similar to Flight 19. This photo had been used by various Triangle authors to illustrate Flight 19 itself. (US Navy)

Flight 19 was a training flight of TBM Avenger bombers that went missing on December 5, 1945 while over the Atlantic. The squadron's flight path was scheduled to take them due east for 120 miles, north for 73 miles, and then back over a final 120-mile leg that would return them to the naval base, but they never returned. The impression is given that the flight encountered unusual phenomena and anomalous compass readings, and that the flight took place on a calm day under the supervision of an experienced pilot, Lt. Charles Carroll Taylor. Adding to the intrigue is that the Navy's report of the accident was ascribed to "causes or reasons unknown." It is believed that Taylor's mother wanted to save her son's reputation, so she made them write "reasons unknown" when actually Taylor was 50 km NW from where he thought he was.[33]

Adding to the mystery, a search and rescue Mariner aircraft with a 13-man crew was dispatched to aid the missing squadron, but the Mariner itself was never heard from again. Later, there was a report from a tanker cruising off the coast of Florida of a visible explosion at about the time the Mariner would have been on patrol.

While the basic facts of this version of the story are essentially accurate, some important details are missing. The weather was becoming stormy by the end of the incident, and naval reports and written recordings of the conversations between Taylor and the other pilots of Flight 19 do not indicate magnetic problems.[33]
Mary Celeste

The mysterious abandonment in 1872 of the 282-ton brigantine Mary Celeste is often but inaccurately connected to the Triangle, the ship having been abandoned off the coast of Portugal. The event is possibly confused with the loss of a ship with a similar name, the Mari Celeste, a 207-ton paddle steamer which hit a reef and quickly sank off the coast of Bermuda on September 13, 1864.[34][35] Kusche noted that many of the "facts" about this incident were actually about the Marie Celeste, the fictional ship from Arthur Conan Doyle's short story "J. Habakuk Jephson's Statement" (based on the real Mary Celeste incident, but fictionalised).
Ellen Austin

The Ellen Austin supposedly came across a derelict ship, placed on board a prize crew, and attempted to sail with it to New York in 1881. According to the stories, the derelict disappeared; others elaborating further that the derelict reappeared minus the prize crew, then disappeared again with a second prize crew on board. A check from Lloyd's of London records proved the existence of the Meta, built in 1854 and that in 1880 the Meta was renamed Ellen Austin. There are no casualty listings for this vessel, or any vessel at that time, that would suggest a large number of missing men were placed on board a derelict which later disappeared.[36]
USS Cyclops

The incident resulting in the single largest loss of life in the history of the US Navy not related to combat occurred when USS Cyclops, under the command of Lt Cdr G. W. Worley, went missing without a trace with a crew of 309 sometime after March 4, 1918, after departing the island of Barbados. Although there is no strong evidence for any single theory, many independent theories exist, some blaming storms, some capsizing, and some suggesting that wartime enemy activity was to blame for the loss.[37][38]
Theodosia Burr Alston

Theodosia Burr Alston was the daughter of former United States Vice President Aaron Burr. Her disappearance has been cited at least once in relation to the Triangle.[39] She was a passenger on board the Patriot, which sailed from Charleston, South Carolina to New York City on December 30, 1812, and was never heard from again. The planned route is well outside all but the most extended versions of the Bermuda Triangle. Both piracy and the War of 1812 have been posited as explanations, as well as a theory placing her in Texas, well outside the Triangle.
Spray

S.V. Spray was a derelict fishing boat refitted as an ocean cruiser by Joshua Slocum and used by him to complete the first ever single-handed circumnavigation of the world, between 1895 and 1898.

In 1909, Slocum set sail from Vineyard Haven bound for Venezuela. Neither he nor Spray were ever seen again.

There is no evidence they were in the Bermuda Triangle when they disappeared, nor is there any evidence of paranormal activity. The boat was considered in poor condition and a hard boat to handle that Slocum's skill usually overcame.[14]
Schooner Carroll A. Deering, as seen from the Cape Lookout lightship on January 29, 1921, two days before she was found deserted in North Carolina. (US Coast Guard)
Carroll A. Deering

A five-masted schooner built in 1919, the Carroll A. Deering was found hard aground and abandoned at Diamond Shoals, near Cape Hatteras, North Carolina on January 31, 1921. Rumors and more at the time indicated the Deering was a victim of piracy, possibly connected with the illegal rum-running trade during Prohibition, and possibly involving another ship, S.S. Hewitt, which disappeared at roughly the same time. Just hours later, an unknown steamer sailed near the lightship along the track of the Deering, and ignored all signals from the lightship. It is speculated that the Hewitt may have been this mystery ship, and possibly involved in the Deering crew's disappearance.[40]
Douglas DC-3

On December 28, 1948, a Douglas DC-3 aircraft, number NC16002, disappeared while on a flight from San Juan, Puerto Rico, to Miami. No trace of the aircraft or the 32 people onboard was ever found. From the documentation compiled by the Civil Aeronautics Board investigation, a possible key to the plane's disappearance was found, but barely touched upon by the Triangle writers: the plane's batteries were inspected and found to be low on charge, but ordered back into the plane without a recharge by the pilot while in San Juan. Whether or not this led to complete electrical failure will never be known. However, since piston-engined aircraft rely upon magnetos to provide spark to their cylinders rather than a battery powered ignition coil system, this theory is not strongly convincing.[41]
Star Tiger and Star Ariel

G-AHNP Star Tiger disappeared on January 30, 1948 on a flight from the Azores to Bermuda; G-AGRE Star Ariel disappeared on January 17, 1949, on a flight from Bermuda to Kingston, Jamaica. Both were Avro Tudor IV passenger aircraft operated by British South American Airways.[42] Both planes were operating at the very limits of their range and the slightest error or fault in the equipment could keep them from reaching the small island. One plane was not heard from long before it would have entered the Triangle.[14]
KC-135 Stratotankers

On August 28, 1963 a pair of U.S. Air Force KC-135 Stratotanker aircraft collided and crashed into the Atlantic. The Triangle version (Winer, Berlitz, Gaddis[8][11][12]) of this story specifies that they did collide and crash, but there were two distinct crash sites, separated by over 160 miles (260 km) of water. However, Kusche's research[14] showed that the unclassified version of the Air Force investigation report stated that the debris field defining the second "crash site" was examined by a search and rescue ship, and found to be a mass of seaweed and driftwood tangled in an old buoy.
SS Marine Sulphur Queen

SS Marine Sulphur Queen, a T2 tanker converted from oil to sulfur carrier, was last heard from on February 4, 1963 with a crew of 39 near the Florida Keys. Marine Sulphur Queen was the first vessel mentioned in Vincent Gaddis' 1964 Argosy Magazine article,[8] but he left it as having "sailed into the unknown", despite the Coast Guard report which not only documented the ship's badly-maintained history, but declared that it was an unseaworthy vessel that should never have gone to sea.[43][44]
Raifuku Maru

One of the more famous incidents in the Triangle took place in 1921 (some say a few years later), when the Japanese vessel Raifuku Maru (sometimes misidentified as Raikuke Maru) went down with all hands after sending a distress signal which allegedly said "Danger like dagger now. Come quick!", or "It's like a dagger, come quick!" This has led writers to speculate on what the "dagger" was, with a waterspout being the likely candidate (Winer). In reality the ship was nowhere near the Triangle, nor was the word "dagger" a part of the ship's distress call ("Now very danger. Come quick."); having left Boston for Hamburg, Germany, on April 21, 1925, she got caught in a severe storm and sank in the North Atlantic with all hands while another ship, RMS Homeric, attempted an unsuccessful rescue.[45]
Connemara IV

A pleasure yacht found adrift in the Atlantic south of Bermuda on September 26, 1955; it is usually stated in the stories (Berlitz, Winer[11][12]) that the crew vanished while the yacht survived being at sea during three hurricanes. The 1955 Atlantic hurricane season lists only one storm coming near Bermuda towards the end of August, hurricane "Edith"; of the others, "Flora" was too far to the east, and "Katie" arrived after the yacht was recovered. It was confirmed that the Connemara IV was empty and in port when "Edith" may have caused the yacht to slip her moorings and drift out to sea.[14]
Carolyn Cascio

A Cessna piloted by Carolyn Cascio, on June 7, 1964, with one passenger, attempted to travel from Nassau, Bahamas to Cocburn, Grand Turk, Island. The plane was witnessed by many air traffic controllers in Cockburn's airport to circle the island for 30 minutes, after which, it flew away apparently for another island. All attempts from the ground to raise Cascio on the radio failed.

postingan

2009-11-04T20:06:00.001-08:00

How to Unblock Blocked Ear
Don’t waste your time searching for methods how to unblock blocked ears all over the internet any longer. The ways how to unblock blocked ear described on the internet as free tips from regular public and the methods described in the forums do not work and some of them will even cause you ear infections. The best ways to unblock your ears is by sticking to the methods that have being proven to work for decades and are safe to perform from the comfort of your own home.

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October 31st, 2009 | Category: Health, beauty tips | Leave a comment
Yeast Infection Treatments
You can try many yeast infection cures today as they vary from over-the-counter drugs like Monistat to quick natural remedies or more complex ones like homeopathic cures.

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October 30th, 2009 | Category: Health, beauty tips, fitness | One comment
Natural Dandruff Remedy

If you are looking for a dandruff remedy, you are not alone. Dandruff is a common problem that can be solved with ease with some natural remedies. What are you going to do when your dandruff is gone? Dark clothing will no longer cause you any embarrassment any more. Keep reading to find out about some natural remedies.

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October 29th, 2009 | Category: Health, beauty tips | One comment
Insomnia Help-Natural Remedies versus Pills
Both natural remedies and sleeping pills undoubtedly works for those who seek help for their insomnia issues, but which among the two can really bring you the most desirable effect?

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October 28th, 2009 | Category: Health, beauty tips, fitness | Leave a comment
Staying Strong After And Through Menopause

Menopause is a time of great change for women. It is a transition that can impact our physical and emotional function, sometimes bringing great challenges. It is also a transition that brings a wealth of wisdom and fulfillment if we take the time to listen within. With some attention to self care and nurturing, this can be a highly rewarding time of life.

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October 27th, 2009 | Category: Health, beauty tips | One comment
Curing Acid Reflux with Your Cupboard
Why is everyone talking about honey and heartburn? You may be surprised that some of the most effective cures for acid reflux could be sitting in your cupboard.

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October 26th, 2009 | Category: Health, beauty tips | Leave a comment
Acupuncture Can For Weight Loss

Most people find weight loss to be difficult to achieve, especially in the long term and many have tried diets that may reduce some weight only for them to gain weight once again with extra pounds being added. This may be one the reasons why more and more people are turning to acupuncture for weight loss in an effort to handle the weight problem once and for all.

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October 25th, 2009 | Category: Health, beauty tips | 2 comments
Knowledge on Computer Online

Tech savvy and tech savvy wannabes alike can now learn more and more even at the comforts of their homes and couches. Those who already have a bachelor’s degree in computer or Information Technology related courses can further expand their expertise with an ease through a higher computer course online. Similarly, non-IT professionals or career people who are in need of basic or advance IT training constrained by distance or busy schedule can opt for the online education option.

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October 24th, 2009 | Category: Education | Leave a comment
Busines Internet

Attention: Online Income Seeker, Discover The Most Effective Step-By-Step Money Making System In Existence…

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October 23rd, 2009 | Category: Advertising, Business, MLM, Marketing, Money, News, Strategi | Leave a comment
Use Triks Awesome Vedic Maths Tricks
Vedic maths tricks you can use to help you develop a better understanding of mathematics and complete your math assignments easier. Lots of tips and tricks start with the simple objectives of vedic math. Here is all the information you can start with to find out what vedic maths is.

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postingan

2009-11-04T20:06:00.000-08:00

2009-11-03T23:58:00.000-08:00

Finding Texas MCLE Certification Online

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Texas MCLE can be done easily, conveniently, quickly and completely over the Internet, thanks to companies that have designed websites for these professionals to use. The best ones collect all of the information that professionals need to know in order to stay in good standing with the state bar.
There are many different requirements that professionals have to abide by, and they are all different for different states so you must make sure that you are very familiar with your individual states demands. Even though in the past, professionals could only take their courses by going to a classroom for many hours, today they are able to fulfill their requirements completely online. This is great for those who are super busy, those with many family obligations, and those who do not want to take more time away from their careers than they have to.

To get enough Texas MCLE that you need in The Lonestar State, you will need to go online and find one of the websites that offer it all. The best websites will be able to not only offer the courses but will also offer all of the information about the requirements that a professional needs. The more information that a site contains, the better it will help you. Any and every website must be approved and certified by the TX Bar in order for your efforts and courses to be counted as legitimate. The best websites not only make it easier to successfully complete the requirements but they also reduce the amount of stress and time that are required to complete them. There is no traveling involved, no time constraints, and no suit and tie are required. The number of Continuing Legal Education hours that states require varies, and while TX requires a total of 15, but other states are different. Florida requires 30 hours, but New York only requires 24. Some of the states have different options or electives for attorneys to choose from, and they also have specialty certification requirements that are part of the total required credits. Texas requirements include a specialty certification in Legal Ethics or Professionalism.

Usually those states that only have 15 or so hours required make professionals repeat those hours more often. For example, While New York requires 24 continuing legal education hours, they only have to be taken every two years. Texas MCLE requirements involve only 15 hours much less than New York, but those must be repeated every year.

Posted by ☺ Baiiu bLog ☺ at 11:30 PM 0 comments
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Sunday, November 1, 2009
How To Choose The Best Online Assessor Training Course

If you are in the education field you need to make sure that you keep up to date on all your credentials. This could affect your employment. You want to make sure that any training you need to get is up to date, passes all standards, and prepares you for your job. Sure you can go to a classroom and learn this material, but why would you if you can take the course online?

Coaching

Does the organisation provide one on one coaching to its students? This is imperative. As you will not be in a classroom you need to be able to have individualized contact with someone should you have any questions, concerns, or problems in your study.

Time Frame

How long does the course take? Does the course has a set schedule or can you work at your own pace? Most classes teach to the majority of the students and if you aren’t picking up the material as fast as everyone else you might never catch up.

Cost

The cost to improve oneself shouldn’t make you sign your life away for the next five years. It should be relatively inexpensive and within your budget. The whole point of taking the course it to improve yourself so that you can make more money. You don’t want to put yourself in outrageous debt before you’re even qualified.

Curriculum Qualifications

Any company that you pick needs to be able to support the field that you are working in. You don’t want to pick an organisation that is only qualified to teach secondary schools when you work in the private sector. You might not be able to get a refund. So make sure you verify before you buy.

Credit

If you have training already, but need a refresher course can they offer this to you? Or is this the same course you’ve already taken? If you already have a basic understanding and they have a course that will suffice, will they provide you with credit towards their program?

You should be commended for improving yourself. Whether you are concentrating in the private sector, polytechnics, secondary school, or a private training establishment. You need to make sure that you select the best company that will provide you with plenty of options. If you already have experience you’ll want to make sure the company provides you with credit but proper training if you don’t. And you don’t want the course to make a huge dent in your wallet. You need to ensure that you will get the proper training and additional help if needed. This company needs to be qualified in the area that you work in. If you have a deadline and need to finish the course in one week or 90 days you need to be able to choose what is best for you and your situation. And even if they are an online course, do they provide an option to have classroom training if you aren’t computer savvy?
Posted by ☺ Baiiu bLog ☺ at 11:28 PM 0 comments
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Friday, October 30, 2009
Generate Fresh MLM Leads: Online Marketing Strategies

What makes an online business successful? Is it the amount of money it makes or how many customers it has, maybe the amount of distributors in it’s downline. Nope, none of these things are what makes a company successful. What makes a company successful in the amount of leads it can generate and convert.

Without leads an online business wouldn’t make any money. Without leads it won’t have any customers or distributors either. Leads are the key ingredient in a successful online business. In this article you will learn how to generate fresh mlm leads for any business with four online marketing strategies.

Google Adwords

Google Adwords marketing campaigns are the best way to generate tons of fresh MLM leads for your online business. Google Adwords are the ads that you see on the right side of Google when you search for things. In a nutshell you are paying to compete for keywords. So, this strategy does cost money. However if you can afford it, it is well worth the investment.

Tip: Before jumping head first into adwords and invest thousands of dollars. Do some trial runs and also make sure to learn everything you can.

Video Marketing

Video marketing is exploding all over the web. More and more people are seeing the benefits to this online marketing strategy. Video marketing is the best way to generate fresh MLM leads in the organic search rankings. Not only do people prefer a video over reading, but Google also loves video. Google will rank video higher and quicker then most content online. If your building your business on a budget. Video marketing is a must.

Tip: Once you have finished your video. Upload it to as many video sharing sites as possible. Great automated uploading tools for videos are Tubemogul or Traffic Geyser.

Article Marketing

Article marketing is the second best online marketing strategy to generate fresh MLM leads in the organic search results. This strategy involves writing your opinions, reviews or just writing what you know or learned. This online marketing strategy is great for those who are building on a budget because it is free. Article marketing is also a great way to get your website ranked high in the search engines because of the quality one way back links.

Tip: In order to maximize your efforts and receive tons of traffic. Submit your article to as many article directories as possible. A great automatic article submitter is
“Article submitter”. It’s free

Banner Ads

People are bombarded by ads everyday. Whether it’s T.V. or billboards. Everywhere we look in this world we see ads. You can’t escape them. The same is true online. Every website you visit has advertising space. This is why banner marketing is a great way to generate fresh MLM leads. People are drawn to ads, especially if they are catchy and well written. A great aspect of this strategy is once you find a banner ad that works you can set if and forget. That banners will continue to bring your site traffic, while you do other things.

Tip: Use Alexa rankings to find websites that get lots of traffic. Also put your banners on websites within your chosen niche.

Most entrepreneurs don’t understand how crucial leads are to their business. Leads are the life blood of your business and ultimately your success. With these few online marketing strategies listed above. You now have the knowledge to generate tons of fresh MLM leads and also gain ultimate success and longevity in the online marketing industry. Here’s to your success!
Posted by ☺ Baiiu bLog ☺ at 3:00 AM 0 comments
Labels: Marketing
Thursday, October 29, 2009
Online College Degrees the New Requirement in the Workplace

It seems that more and more people these days are going online to attain the education that they need to excel in life. Used to be, that all you needed to make it in life was common sense and a desire to succeed. These days however there is a new trend emerging, that of the college degree employee.

In years past you had to miss work in an effort to get a college degree in an effort to make it in the workplace. However with the arrival of the Internet getting a college degree is as easy as ordering your favorite pizza. This article is designed to give you an overview of the world of online degrees and aid you in the decision that you need to make when selecting a college.

One thing that you need to keep in mind is that these days adult students make up half of the students that are going online to attain their degree. More schools as of late are considering the adult students when they design their class offerings as well as the schedule of those classes. Most online classes today can be taken in the evening after you have got home and spent some time with your family. One thing that many employees need to consider is that these days many employers will compensate an employee if they attend a higher learning institute, to further their education. The simple fact is this having a degree is no longer a luxury it is more of a necessity that many people need to consider if they want to advance in their job.

Many of the bigger colleges offer a distance learning option that allows students to earn the same degree that they would if they attended class on campus. People today live in a minute by minute life and are constantly on the go. Online college degrees offer them the convince of getting their college degree in their own time that is easy for them to find the time.

No matter if you are just starting out or have been in the workplace for years, an online college degree will carry you farther in the world than if you are in the same job without a degree. When you are looking at a school there are a few things that you need to keep in mind. First find out if they offer financial aid, if they do then you will want to make sure that you qualify before you go to get signed up for a bunch of classes you won’t be able to pay for. Second research the school and make sure that it is a school that has a solid history and will not be here today and gone the next with your money. The last thing that you need to make sure of is that the degree you receive is actual worth the paper it is printed on. The last thing that you want to do is pay for a degree to find out that it has more value as a piece of toilet paper.
Posted by ☺ Baiiu bLog ☺ at 11:27 PM 0 comments
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Wednesday, October 28, 2009
Online Computer Science Degrees: What Everyone Needs to Know

Do you really love computers? Do you wish to know how computers function, how they really work? If you possessed a computer science degree, you would have knowledge encompassing all about computers and more. How could you possibly be able to receive a computer science degree while you barely are hanging on financially with your present job and impending financial obligations? The answer is rather easy. You are able to receive an online computer science degree by learning, studying and working in just your spare time. In just a little time, you may be able to give your notice at that dead end job you now hold and you ought to be able to acquire your dream job of working with computers.

At the time you locate a good school, and know that there are many available, you simply need to sign up for classes and get to studying. If you happen to be worried about finances, you will be pleased to learn that many online computer science degrees can be reached by obtaining financial aid with the school, a bank or even a student loan company, such as Sallie Mae. To locate a good school, a mere internet search will come up with a long list and you can begin to start comparing the schools you locate. With a little time and research, you will find a school program that suits you and your lifestyle and you can proceed to work on your online computer science degree.

It ought to be voiced that merely as and just because you are taking classes and embarking towards an online computer science degree does not mean you are able to slack off. No one will be there to verify and ensure that you are paying attention, studying or even doing your homework. You must therefore be very self-disciplined. Set your goals, recall them often and work toward them. Study at the times it states and complete your work and turn it is as directed and at the time when you finally earn and receive your online computer science degree, you will certainly be able to say you that it has been earned, just as if you were to have attended an actual college.

There exist a lot of advantages with obtaining an online computer science degree. First off, you are able to work towards your degree at the same time as holding a full time job. This will allow you to support yourself and/or family while you attempt at bettering yourself. Secondly, it will allow you to study at any location you have a computer, laptop and an internet connection. This means you are also able to travel and earn your degree simultaneously, assuming that you are also still working hard at studying and learning the materials as needed. Finally, laboring towards your online computer science degree will provide you with a immense sense of accomplishment and enhanced self worth. You should be able to apply for different and better paying positions with a confidence in the knowledge that you have improved your life by way of your own hard work, studies and dedication. Obtaining an online computer science degree is quite an accomplishment that you will be proud of.

So locate a school program that fits and begin your progression towards an online computer science degree. You never know the doors that may open for you and you if you do not try. The ultimate career opportunity may present itself, often while in school and working on internships or even after a few classes, positions in your field of study quickly open up for you.
Posted by ☺ Baiiu bLog ☺ at 11:26 PM 0 comments
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Tuesday, October 27, 2009
Online Biology Degrees: Educate Yourself

One of the many branches of study within the field of Science is Biology.

The free web dictionary defines Biology as: “The science of life and of living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, and distribution. It includes botany and zoology and all their subdivisions. It is also the life processes or characteristic phenomena of a group or category of living organisms: the biology of viruses. And it is also the plant and animal life of a specific area or region.”

The majority of students discover this field to be a very interesting field of study. The area is one overflowing with learning possibilities and can also be very exciting as it involves the vibrant world of plants and animals. These can be very interesting to observe and learn. How much more can a student observe it not merely by books but also by online biology videos? You can educate yourself in this field by online Biology degrees.

Children of varying age brackets can learn information online from the website of The National Biological Information Infrastructure. It is one of many sites on the World Wide Web that is able to serve with a wealth of information for the learning of Biology. This site is able to be a great guide for teachers who are introducing and teaching: Aquatic Biology, General biology, Biodiversity and Environment, Botany, Birds, Insects, Mammals, Arachnids and Annelids, Microbes, or even Reptiles and Amphibians among many others. For students using this site, there exist age and level brackets from which they could choose pick. You can also search to educate yourself on further your interest to obtain an online biology degree.

These online videos for Biology can really be an effective media tool for learning and education. Different from others such as a conventional book, videos are able to encourage the children to understand more of the lessons. They no longer will have a difficult time imagining how particular animals or plants appear as they will see it in action. Although, there often are pictures in books, videos are in action and it will appear more “real” to the eyes of the students-viewers. You never know if you are aspiring one to become the next Jane Goodall. They may use these as a catalyst to reach great heights and even receive an online biology degree to save the planet Earth one day.

This type of video information has the ability to make Education easier and learning more fun while students are learning and absorbing new facts presented to them. As any teacher or parent is well aware, kids have a stage in their life where they appear to pay less attention to studies. As they would much rather play or meet up with their peers. To utilize videos for this type of student is a great way of capturing and keeping attention focused on the subject matter.

One of the best things about Education by way of videos for Biology is that it is able to set a good model for children. Children constantly imitate. When videos represent the conservation of Earth, in the manner of planting of trees, recycling or other helpful activities, it will teach children to do the same and act in the same manner. Learning will never be boring. Attempt to use and view these videos at this time for yourself and you will see the big difference. You may even be aspired yourself to progress and reach for an online biology degree.

Biology is a fundamental subject to learn- so learn and teach it in the best way possible that will keep the attention and interest of the student. Online education for biology is at its most accurate and most up to date which is advantageous of our time. Learn to take advantage of online biology degrees, courses and classes!
Posted by ☺ Baiiu bLog ☺ at 11:24 PM 0 comments
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Monday, October 26, 2009
Educational Leaders in Public Schools

Public schools are well known for careful stratification and segregation of age groups. Public schools are so poorly run (take DPS for example) that all of those kids run across the county line to attend any school that will accept them. These kids are so far behind academically because of the crap that DPS taught or didn’t teach, that they will never be academically successful.

Public schools are not required to answer to parents, but they do need to heed the words of politicians and school boards-all of whom have their own political agendas. It would not be an exaggeration to say that these agendas are weakening the entire system.

Public schools are operated at the state level through departments of education, and locally by school districts and publicly elected or appointed school boards. Approximately 15,000 different school districts operate in the United States, and most are run by counties.

Educational leaders have focused in recent years on providing safe and disciplined school environments for students and teachers. Many schools have increased expulsions of violent students by adopting “zero tolerance policies” toward serious offenders. Education outcomes become irrelevant. Educators and parents can post a “viewpoint” page on the site that acts as an online profile, and they can participate in discussion forums, share links and resources, and review teaching materials.

Education reformers and policymakers who consider higher academic standards a centerpiece of their movement should not count on teachers to be a driving force, added Wadsworth. It may be that the academic energies of even the most motivated teachers are sapped by what they consider to be the stressful day-to-day demands of the classroom. Education costs have been rising faster than inflation. Many parents want, but cannot afford, these private alternatives. Educating for citizenship, work and the public good has been replaced with models of schooling in which students, especially poor minority youth, are viewed narrowly either as a threat or as perpetrators of violence. When not viewed as potential criminals, they are positioned as infantilized potential victims of crime (on the Internet, at school and in other youth spheres) who must endure modes of governing that are demeaning and repressive.

Educators must recover their higher motivation, a spirituality that comes from faith not in religion but in civilization, humanity’s sanctuary from the cruel vortex of nature. Educational alternatives would be unlimited. It would be the source of enormous progress, and a model for the nation.

f.i.r

2009-10-23T21:55:00.001-07:00

saykoji pengen kurus

2009-10-23T21:55:00.000-07:00

history of borobudur temple

2009-10-21T23:16:00.002-07:00

Borobudur
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Borobudur
Borobudur northwest view
Borobudur is located in Java Topography
Shown within Java Topography
Building
Architectural style stupa and candi
Town near Magelang, Central Java
Country Indonesia
Coordinates 7°36′29″S 110°12′14″E / 7.608°S 110.204°E / -7.608; 110.204
Construction
Completed circa AD 800
Design team
Architect Gunadharma

Borobudur is a ninth-century Mahayana Buddhist Monument in Magelang, Central Java, Indonesia. The monument comprises six square platforms topped by three circular platforms, and is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues.[1] A main dome, located at the center of the top platform, is surrounded by 72 Buddha statues seated inside perforated stupa.

The monument is both a shrine to the Lord Buddha and a place for Buddhist pilgrimage. The journey for pilgrims begins at the base of the monument and follows a path circumambulating the monument while ascending to the top through the three levels of Buddhist cosmology, namely Kāmadhātu (the world of desire), Rupadhatu (the world of forms) and Arupadhatu (the world of formlessness). During the journey the monument guides the pilgrims through a system of stairways and corridors with 1,460 narrative relief panels on the wall and the balustrades.

Evidence suggests Borobudur was abandoned following the fourteenth century decline of Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms in Java, and the Javanese conversion to Islam.[2] Worldwide knowledge of its existence was sparked in 1814 by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, the then British ruler of Java, who was advised of its location by native Indonesians. Borobudur has since been preserved through several restorations. The largest restoration project was undertaken between 1975 and 1982 by the Indonesian government and UNESCO, following which the monument was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[3] Borobudur is still used for pilgrimage; once a year Buddhists in Indonesia celebrate Vesak at the monument, and Borobudur is Indonesia's single most visited tourist attraction.[4][5][6]
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Etymology
* 2 Location
* 3 History
o 3.1 Construction
o 3.2 Abandonment
o 3.3 Rediscovery
o 3.4 Contemporary events
* 4 Architecture
* 5 Reliefs
* 6 Buddha statues
* 7 Restoration
* 8 Gallery of reliefs
* 9 See also
* 10 References
o 10.1 General
o 10.2 Notes
* 11 Further reading
* 12 External links

[edit] Etymology
Borobudur stupas overlooking a mountain. For centuries, it was deserted.

In Indonesian, ancient temples are known as candi; thus "Borobudur Temple" is locally known as Candi Borobudur. The term candi is also used more loosely to describe any ancient structure, for example gates and bathing structures. The origins of the name Borobudur however are unclear,[7] although the original names of most ancient Indonesian temples are no longer known.[7] The name Borobudur was first written in Sir Thomas Raffles' book on Javan history.[8] Raffles wrote about a monument called borobudur, but there are no older documents suggesting the same name.[7] The only old Javanese manuscript that hints at the monument as a holy Buddhist sanctuary is Nagarakretagama, written by Mpu Prapanca in 1365.[9]

The name 'Bore-Budur', and thus 'BoroBudur', is thought to have been written by Raffles in English grammar to mean the nearby village of Bore; most candi are named after a nearby village. If it followed Javanese language, the monument should have been named 'BudurBoro'. Raffles also suggested that 'Budur' might correspond to the modern Javanese word Buda ('ancient') – i.e., 'ancient Boro'.[7] However, another archaeologist suggests the second component of the name ('Budur') comes from Javanese term bhudhara (or mountain).[10]
[edit] Location
Location of Borobudur-Pawon-Mendut in one straight line.

Approximately 40 kilometers (25 mi) northwest of Yogyakarta, Borobudur is located in an elevated area between two twin volcanoes, Sundoro-Sumbing and Merbabu-Merapi, and two rivers, the Progo and the Elo. According to local myth, the area known as Kedu Plain is a Javanese 'sacred' place and has been dubbed 'the garden of Java' due to its high agricultural fertility.[11] Besides Borobudur, there are other Buddhist and Hindu temples in the area, including the Prambanan temples compound. During the restoration in the early 1900s, it was discovered that three Buddhist temples in the region, Borobudur, Pawon and Mendut, are lined in one straight line position.[12] It might be accidental, but the temples' alignment is in conjunction with a native folk tale that a long time ago, there was a brick-paved road from Borobudur to Mendut with walls on both sides. The three temples (Borobudur–Pawon–Mendut) have similar architecture and ornamentation derived from the same time period, which suggests that ritual relationship between the three temples, in order to have formed a sacred unity, must have existed, although exact ritual process is yet unknown.[9]

Unlike other temples, which were built on a flat surface, Borobudur was built on a bedrock hill, 265 m (869 ft) above sea level and 15 m (49 ft) above the floor of the dried-out paleolake.[13] The lake's existence was the subject of intense discussion among archaeologists in the twentieth century; Borobudur was thought to have been built on a lake shore or even floated on a lake. In 1931, a Dutch artist and a scholar of Hindu and Buddhist architecture, W.O.J. Nieuwenkamp, developed a theory that Kedu Plain was once a lake and Borobudur initially represented a lotus flower floating on the lake.[10] Lotus flowers are found in almost every Buddhist work of art, often serving as a throne for buddhas and base for stupas. The architecture of Borobudur itself suggests a lotus depiction, in which Buddha postures in Borobudur symbolize the Lotus Sutra, mostly found in many Mahayana Buddhism (a school of Buddhism widely spread in the east Asia region) texts. Three circular platforms on the top are also thought to represent a lotus leaf.[13] Nieuwenkamp's theory, however, was contested by many archaeologists because the natural environment surrounding the monument is a dry land.

Geologists, on the other hand, support Nieuwenkamp's view, pointing out clay sediments found near the site.[14] A study of stratigraphy, sediment and pollen samples conducted in 2000 supports the existence of a paleolake environment near Borobudur,[13] which tends to confirm Nieuwenkamp's theory. The lake area fluctuated with time and the study also proves that Borobudur was near the lake shore circa thirteenth and fourteenth century. River flows and volcanic activities shape the surrounding landscape, including the lake. One of the most active volcanoes in Indonesia, Mount Merapi, is in the direct vicinity of Borobudur and has been very active since the Pleistocene.[15]
[edit] History
[edit] Construction
Buddhist pilgrims meditate on the top platform.

There is no written record of who built Borobudur or of its intended purpose.[16] The construction time has been estimated by comparison between carved reliefs on the temple's hidden foot and the inscriptions commonly used in royal charters during the eight and ninth centuries. Borobudur was likely founded around 800 AD.[16] This corresponds to the period between 760–830 AD, the peak of the Sailendra dynasty in central Java,[17] when it was under the influence of the Srivijayan Empire. The construction has been estimated to have taken 75 years and been completed during the reign of Samaratungga in 825.[18][19]

There is confusion between Hindu and Buddhist rulers in Java around that time. The Sailendras were known as ardent followers of Lord Buddha, though stone inscriptions found at Sojomerto suggest they may have been Hindus.[18] It was during this time that many Hindu and Buddhist monuments were built on the plains and mountain around the Kedu Plain. The Buddhist monuments, including Borobudur, were erected around the same time as the Hindu Shiva Prambanan temple compound. In 732 AD, the Shivaite King Sanjaya commissioned a Shivalinga sanctuary to be built on the Ukir hill, only 10 km (6.2 miles) east of Borobudur.[20]

Construction of Buddhist temples, including Borobudur, at that time was possible because Sanjaya's immediate successor, Rakai Panangkaran, granted his permission to the Buddhist followers to build such temples.[21] In fact, to show his respect, Panangkaran gave the village of Kalasan to the Buddhist community, as is written in the Kalasan Charter dated 778 AD.[21] This has led some archaeologists to believe that there was never serious conflict concerning religion in Java as it was possible for a Hindu king to patronize the establishment of a Buddhist monument; or for a Buddhist king to act likewise.[22] However, it is likely that there were two rival royal dynasties in Java at the time—the Buddhist Sailendra and the Saivite Sanjaya—in which the latter triumphed over their rival in the 856 battle on the Ratubaka plateau.[23] This confusion also exists regarding the Lara Jonggrang temple at the Prambanan complex, which was believed that it was erected by the victor Rakai Pikatan as the Sanjaya dynasty's reply to Borobudur,[23] but others suggest that there was a climate of peaceful coexistence where Sailendra involvement exists in Lara Jonggrang.[24]
[edit] Abandonment

Borobudur lay hidden for centuries under layers of volcanic ash and jungle growth. The facts behind its abandonment remain a mystery. It is not known when active use of the monument and Buddhist pilgrimage to it ceased. Somewhere between 928 and 1006, the center of power moved to East Java region and a series of volcanic eruptions took place; it is not certain whether the latter influenced the former but several sources mention this as the most likely period of abandonment.[2][13] Soekmono (1976) also mentions the popular belief that the temples were disbanded when the population converted to Islam in the fifteenth century.[2]

The monument was not forgotten completely, though folk stories gradually shifted from its past glory into more superstitious beliefs associated with bad luck and misery. Two old Javanese chronicles (babad) from the eighteenth century mention cases of bad luck associated with the monument. According to the Babad Tanah Jawi (or the History of Java), the monument was a fatal factor for a rebel who revolted against the king of Mataram in 1709.[2] The hill was besieged and the insurgents were defeated and sentenced to death by the king. In the Babad Mataram (or the History of the Mataram Kingdom), the monument was associated with the misfortune of the crown prince of the Yogyakarta Sultanate in 1757.[25] In spite of a taboo against visiting the monument, "he took what is written as the knight who was captured in a cage (a statue in one of the perforated stupas)". Upon returning to his palace, he fell ill and died one day later.
[edit] Rediscovery
Borobudur's main stupa, which is empty and has created a mystery during the discovery period.

Following the Anglo-Dutch Java War, Java was under British administration from 1811 to 1816. The appointed governor was Lieutenant Governor-General Thomas Stamford Raffles, who took great interest in the history of Java. He collected Javanese antiques and made notes through contacts with local inhabitants during his tour throughout the island. On an inspection tour to Semarang in 1814, he was informed about a big monument deep in a jungle near the village of Bumisegoro.[25] He was not able to make the discovery himself and sent H.C. Cornelius, a Dutch engineer, to investigate.
The first photograph of Borobudur by Isidore van Kinsbergen (1873) after the monument was cleared up.

In two months, Cornelius and his 200 men cut down trees, burned down vegetation and dug away the earth to reveal the monument. Due to the danger of collapse, he could not unearth all galleries. He reported his findings to Raffles including various drawings. Although the discovery is only mentioned by a few sentences, Raffles has been credited with the monument's recovery, as one who had brought it to the world's attention.[8]

Hartmann, a Dutch administrator of the Kedu region, continued Cornelius' work and in 1835 the whole complex was finally unearthed. His interest in Borobudur was more personal than official. Hartmann did not write any reports of his activities; in particular, the alleged story that he discovered the large statue of Buddha in the main stupa.[26] In 1842, Hartmann investigated the main dome although what he discovered remains unknown as the main stupa remains empty.
An 1895 hand tinted lantern slide of a Buddha statue at Borobudur. Photograph by William Henry Jackson.

The Dutch East Indies government then commissioned F.C. Wilsen, a Dutch engineering official, who studied the monument and drew hundreds of relief sketches. J.F.G. Brumund was also appointed to make a detailed study of the monument, which was completed in 1859. The government intended to publish an article based on Brumund study supplemented by Wilsen's drawings, but Brumund refused to cooperate. The government then commissioned another scholar, C. Leemans, who compiled a monograph based on Brumund's and Wilsen's sources. In 1873, the first monograph of the detailed study of Borobudur was published, followed by its French translation a year later.[26] The first photograph of the monument was taken in 1873 by a Dutch-Flemish engraver, Isidore van Kinsbergen.[27]

Appreciation of the site developed slowly, and it served for some time largely as a source of souvenirs and income for "souvenir hunters" and thieves. In 1882, the chief inspector of cultural artifacts recommended that Borobudur be entirely disassembled with the relocation of reliefs into museums due to the unstable condition of the monument.[27] As a result, the government appointed Groenveldt, an archeologist, to undertake a thorough investigation of the site and to assess the actual condition of the complex; his report found that these fears were unjustified and recommended it be left intact.
[edit] Contemporary events
Tourists in Borobudur.

Following the major 1973 renovation funded by UNESCO,[28] Borobudur is once again used as a place of worship and pilgrimage. Once a year, during the full moon in May or June, Buddhists in Indonesia observe Vesak (Indonesian: Waisak) day commemorating the birth, death, and the time when Siddhārtha Gautama attained the highest wisdom to become the Buddha Shakyamuni. Vesak is an official national holiday in Indonesia[29] and the ceremony is centered at the three Buddhist temples by walking from Mendut to Pawon and ending at Borobudur.[30]

The monument is the single most visited tourist attraction in Indonesia. In 1974, 260,000 tourists of whom 36,000 were foreigners visited the monument.[5] The figure hiked into 2.5 million visitors annually (80% were domestic tourists) in the mid 1990s, before the country's economy crisis.[6] Tourism development, however, has been criticized for not including the local community on which occasional local conflict has arisen.[5] In 2003, residents and small businesses around Borobudur organized several meetings and poetry protests, objecting to a provincial government plan to build a three-story mall complex, dubbed the 'Java World'.[31]
"Mahakarya Borobudur" ballet performance at Borobudur

On 21 January 1985, nine stupas were badly damaged by nine bombs.[32] In 1991, a blind Muslim evangelist, Husein Ali Al Habsyie, was sentenced to life imprisonment for masterminding a series of bombings in the mid 1980s including the temple attack.[33] Two other members of a right-wing extremist group that carried out the bombings were each sentenced to 20 years in 1986 and another man received a 13-year prison term. On 27 May 2006, an earthquake of 6.2 magnitude on the Richter scale struck the south coast of Central Java. The event had caused severe damage around the region and casualties to the nearby city of Yogyakarta, but Borobudur remained intact.[34]

On 28 August 2006 the Trail of Civilizations symposium was held in Borobudur under the auspices of the governor of Central Java and the Indonesian Ministry of Culture and Tourism, also present the representatives from UNESCO and predominantly Buddhist nations of Southeast Asia, such as Thailand, Myanmar, Laos, Vietnam and Cambodia. Climax of the event was the "Mahakarya Borobudur" ballet performance in front of the temple of Borobudur. It was choreographed to feature traditional Javanese dancing, music and costumes, and tell the history about the construction of the Borobudur. After the symposium, the Mahakarya Borobudur ballet is performed several times, especially during annual national Waisak commemoration at Borobudur attended by Indonesian President.
[edit] Architecture
Borobudur ground plan

Borobudur is built as a single large stupa, and when viewed from above takes the form of a giant tantric Buddhist mandala, simultaneously representing the Buddhist cosmology and the nature of mind.[35] The foundation is a square, approximately 118 meters (387 ft) on each side. It has nine platforms, of which the lower six are square and the upper three are circular. The upper platform features seventy-two small stupas surrounding one large central stupa. Each stupa is bell-shaped and pierced by numerous decorative openings. Statues of the Buddha sit inside the pierced enclosures.

Approximately 55,000 cubic metres (72,000 cu yd) of stones were taken from neighbouring rivers to build the monument.[36] The stone was cut to size, transported to the site and laid without mortar. Knobs, indentations and dovetails were used to form joints between stones. Reliefs were created in-situ after the building had been completed. The monument is equipped with a good drainage system to cater for the area's high stormwater run-off. To avoid inundation, 100 spouts are provided at each corner with a unique carved gargoyles in the shape of giants or makaras.
Half cross-section with 4:6:9 height ratio for foot, body and head, respectively.

Borobudur differs markedly with the general design of other structures built for this purpose. Instead of building on a flat surface, Borobudur is built on a natural hill. The building technique is, however, similar to other temples in Java. With no inner space as in other temples and its general design similar to the shape of pyramid, Borobudur was first thought more likely to have served as a stupa, instead of a temple.[36] A stupa is intended as a shrine for the Lord Buddha. Sometimes stupas were built only as devotional symbols of Buddhism. A temple, on the other hand, is used as a house of deity and has inner spaces for worship. The complexity of the monument's meticulous design suggests Borobudur is in fact a temple. Congregational worship in Borobudur is performed by means of pilgrimage. Pilgrims were guided by the system of staircases and corridors ascending to the top platform. Each platform represents one stage of enlightenment. The path that guides pilgrims was designed with the symbolism of sacred knowledge according to the Buddhist cosmology.[37]
A narrow corridor with reliefs on the wall.

Little is known about the architect Gunadharma.[38] His name is actually recounted from Javanese legendary folk tales rather than written in old inscriptions. He was said to be one who "... bears the measuring rod, knows division and thinks himself composed of parts."[38] The basic unit measurement he used during the construction was called tala, defined as the length of a human face from the forehead's hairline to the tip of the chin or the distance from the tip of the thumb to the tip of the middle finger when both fingers are stretched at their maximum distance.[39] The unit metrics is then obviously relative between persons, but the monument has exact measurements. A survey conducted in 1977 revealed frequent findings of a ratio of 4:6:9 around the monument. The architect had used the formula to lay out the precise dimensions of Borobudur.[39] The identical ratio formula was further found in the nearby Buddhist temples of Pawon and Mendhut. Archeologists conjectured the purpose of the ratio formula and the tala dimension has calendrical, astronomical and cosmological themes, as of the case in other Hindu and Buddhist temple of Angkor Wat in Cambodia.[38]
A carved gargoyle-shaped water spout for water drainage.

The main vertical structure can be divided into three groups: base (or foot), body, and top, which resembles the three major division of a human body.[38] The base is a 123x123 m (403.5x403.5 ft) square in size and 4 meters (13 ft) high of walls.[36] The body is composed of five square platforms each with diminishing heights. The first terrace is set back 7 meters (23 ft) from the edge of the base. The other terraces are set back by 2 meters (7 ft), leaving a narrow corridor at each stage. The top consists of 3 circular platforms, with each stage supporting a row of perforated stupas, arranged in concentric circles. There is one main dome at the center; the top of which is the highest point of the monument (35 meters (115 ft) above ground level). Access to the upper part is through stairways at the centre of each 4 sides with a number of arched gates, watched by a total of 32 lion statues. The gates is adorned with Kala's head carved on top center of each portals with Makaras projecting from each sides. This Kala-Makara style is commonly found in Javanese temples portal. The main entrance is at the eastern side, the location of the first narrative reliefs. On the slopes of the hill, there are also stairways linking the monument to the low-lying plain.

The monument's three divisions symbolize three stages of mental preparation towards the ultimate goal according to the Buddhist cosmology, namely Kāmadhātu (the world of desires), Rupadhatu (the world of forms), and finally Arupadhatu (the formless world).[40] Kāmadhātu is represented by the base, Rupadhatu by the five square platforms (the body), and Arupadhatu by the three circular platforms and the large topmost stupa. The architectural features between three stages have metaphorical differences. For instance, square and detailed decorations in the Rupadhatu disappear into plain circular platforms in the Arupadhatu to represent how the world of forms – where men are still attached with forms and names – changes into the world of the formless.[41]

In 1885, a hidden structure under the base was accidentally discovered.[42] The "hidden foot" contains reliefs, 160 of which are narrative describing the real Kāmadhātu. The remaining reliefs are panels with short inscriptions that apparently describe instruction for the sculptors, illustrating the scene to be carved.[43] The real base is hidden by an encasement base, the purpose of which remains a mystery. It was first thought that the real base had to be covered to prevent a disastrous subsidence of the monument through the hill.[43] There is another theory that the encasement base was added because the original hidden foot was incorrectly designed, according to Vastu Shastra, the Indian ancient book about architecture and town planning.[42] Regardless of its intention, the encasement base was built with detailed and meticulous design with aesthetics and religious compensation.
[edit] Reliefs
Narrative Panels Distribution[44]
section location story #panels
hidden foot wall Karmavibhangga 160
first gallery main wall Lalitavistara 120
Jataka/Avadana 120
balustrade Jataka/Avadana 372
Jataka/Avadana 128
second gallery balustrade Jataka/Avadana 100
main wall Gandavyuha 128
third gallery main wall Gandavyuha 88
balustrade Gandavyuha 88
fourth gallery main wall Gandavyuha 84
balustrade Gandavyuha 72
Total 1,460

Borobudur contains approximately 2,670 individual bas reliefs (1,460 narrative and 1,212 decorative panels), which cover the façades and balustrades. The total relief surface is 2,500 square meters (26,909.8 sq ft) and they are distributed at the hidden foot (Kāmadhātu) and the five square platforms (Rupadhatu).[44]

The narrative panels, which tell the story of Sudhana and Manohara,[45] are grouped into 11 series encircled the monument with the total length of 3,000 meters (9,843 ft). The hidden foot contains the first series with 160 narrative panels and the remaining 10 series are distributed throughout walls and balustrades in four galleries starting from the eastern entrance stairway to the left. Narrative panels on the wall read from right to left, while on the balustrade read from left to right. This conforms with pradaksina, the ritual of circumambulation performed by pilgrims who move in a clockwise direction while keeping the sanctuary to their right.[46]

The hidden foot depicts the workings of karmic law. The walls of the first gallery have two superimposed series of reliefs; each consists of 120 panels. The upper part depicts the biography of the Buddha, while the lower part of the wall and also balustrades in the first and the second galleries tell the story of the Buddha's former lives.[44] The remaining panels are devoted to Sudhana's further wandering about his search, terminated by his attainment of the Perfect Wisdom.

The law of karma (Karmavibhangga)

The 160 hidden panels do not form a continuous story, but each panel provides one complete illustration of cause and effect.[44] There are depictions of blameworthy activities, from gossip to murder, with their corresponding punishments. There are also praiseworthy activities, that include charity and pilgrimage to sanctuaries, and their subsequent rewards. The pains of hell and the pleasure of heaven are also illustrated. There are scenes of daily life, complete with the full panorama of samsara (the endless cycle of birth and death).

The birth of Buddha (Lalitavistara)

Queen Maya riding horse carriage retreating to Lumbini to give birth to Prince Siddhartha Gautama.
Main article: The birth of Buddha (Lalitavistara)

The story starts from the glorious descent of the Lord Buddha from the Tushita heaven, and ends with his first sermon in the Deer Park near Benares.[46] The relief shows the birth of the Buddha as Prince Siddhartha, son of King Suddhodana and Queen Maya of Kapilavastu (in present-day Nepal).

The story is preceded by 27 panels showing various preparations, in heavens and on earth, to welcome the final incarnation of the Bodhisattva.[46] Before descending from Tushita heaven, the Bodhisattva entrusted his crown to his successor, the future Buddha Maitreya. He descended on earth in the shape of white elephants with six tusks, penetrated to Queen Maya's right womb. Queen Maya had a dream of this event, which was interpreted that his son would become either a sovereign or a Buddha.

While Queen Maya felt that it was the time to give birth, she went to the Lumbini park outside the Kapilavastu city. She stood under a plaksa tree, holding one branch with her right hand and she gave birth to a son, Prince Siddhartha. The story on the panels continues until the prince becomes the Buddha.
Prince Siddhartha Gautama become an ascetic hermit.

Prince Siddhartha story (Jataka) and other legendary persons (Avadana)

Jatakas are stories about the Buddha before he was born as Prince Siddhartha.[47] Avadanas are similar to jatakas, but the main figure is not the Bodhisattva himself. The saintly deeds in avadanas are attributed to other legendary persons. Jatakas and avadanas are treated in one and the same series in the reliefs of Borobudur.

The first 20 lower panels in the first gallery on the wall depict the Sudhanakumaravadana or the saintly deeds of Sudhana. The first 135 upper panels in the same gallery on the balustrades are devoted to the 34 legends of the Jatakamala.[48] The remaining 237 panels depict stories from other sources, as do for the lower series and panels in the second gallery. Some jatakas stories are depicted twice, for example the story of King Sibhi (Rama's forefather).

Sudhana's search for the Ultimate Truth (Gandavyuha)

Gandavyuha is the story told in the final chapter of the Avatamsaka Sutra about Sudhana's tireless wandering in search of the Highest Perfect Wisdom. It covers two galleries (third and fourth) and also half of the second gallery; comprising in total of 460 panels.[49] The principal figure of the story, the youth Sudhana, son of an extremely rich merchant, appears on the 16th panel. The preceding 15 panels form a prologue to the story of the miracles during Buddha's samadhi in the Garden of Jeta at Sravasti.

During his search, Sudhana visited no less than 30 teachers but none of them had satisfied him completely. He was then instructed by Manjusri to meet the monk Megasri, where he was given the first doctrine. As his journey continues, Sudhana meets (in the following order) Supratisthita, the physician Megha (Spirit of Knowledge), the banker Muktaka, the monk Saradhvaja, the upasika Asa (Spirit of Supreme Enlightenment), Bhismottaranirghosa, the Brahmin Jayosmayatna, Princess Maitrayani, the monk Sudarsana, a boy called Indriyesvara, the upasika Prabhuta, the banker Ratnachuda, King Anala, the god Siva Mahadeva, Queen Maya, Bodhisattva Maitreya and then back to Manjusri. Each meeting has given Sudhana a specific doctrine, knowledge and wisdom. These meetings are shown in the third gallery.

After the last meeting with Manjusri, Sudhana went to the residence of Bodhisattva Samantabhadra; depicted in the fourth gallery. The entire series of the fourth gallery is devoted to the teaching of Samantabhadra. The narrative panels finally end with Sudhana's achievement of the Supreme Knowledge and the Ultimate Truth.[50]
[edit] Buddha statues
A Buddha statue with the hand position of dharmachakra mudra (turning the Wheels of the Law).

Apart from the story of Buddhist cosmology carved in stone, Borobudur has many statues of various Buddhas. The cross-legged statues are seated in a lotus position and distributed on the five square platforms (the Rupadhatu level) as well as on the top platform (the Arupadhatu level).
A headless Buddha statue inside a stupa.

The Buddha statues are in niches at the Rupadhatu level, arranged in rows on the outer sides of the balustrades, the number of statues decreasing as platforms progressively diminish to the upper level. The first balustrades have 104 niches, the second 104, the third 88, the fourth 72 and the fifth 64. In total, there are 432 Buddha statues at the Rupadhatu level.[1] At the Arupadhatu level (or the three circular platforms), Buddha statues are placed inside perforated stupas. The first circular platform has 32 stupas, the second 24 and the third 16, that add up to 72 stupas.[1] Of the original 504 Buddha statues, over 300 are damaged (mostly headless) and 43 are missing (since the monument's discovery, heads have been stolen as collector's items, mostly by Western museums).[51]

At glance, all the Buddha statues appear similar, but there is a subtle difference between them in the mudras or the position of the hands. There are five groups of mudra: North, East, South, West and Zenith, which represent the five cardinal compass points according to Mahayana. The first four balustrades have the first four mudras: North, East, South and West, of which the Buddha statues that face one compass direction have the corresponding mudra. Buddha statues at the fifth balustrades and inside the 72 stupas on the top platform have the same mudra: Zenith. Each mudra represents one of the Five Dhyani Buddhas; each has its own symbolism.[52] They are Abhaya mudra for Amoghasiddhi (north), Vara mudra for Ratnasambhava (south), Dhyana mudra for Amitabha (west), Bhumisparsa mudra for Aksobhya (east) and Dharmachakra mudra for Vairochana (zenith).
[edit] Restoration
Embedding concrete and pvc pipe to improve Borobudur's drainage system during the 1973 restoration.

Borobudur attracted attention in 1885, when Yzerman, the Chairman of the Archaeological Society in Yogyakarta, made a discovery about the hidden foot.[42] Photographs that reveal reliefs on the hidden foot were made in 1890–1891.[53] The discovery led the Dutch East Indies government to take steps to safeguard the monument. In 1900, the government set up a commission consisting of three officials to assess the monument: Brandes, an art historian, Theodoor van Erp, a Dutch army engineer officer, and Van de Kamer, a construction engineer from the Department of Public Works.

In 1902, the commission submitted a threefold plan of proposal to the government. First, the immediate dangers should be avoided by resetting the corners, removing stones that endangered the adjacent parts, strengthening the first balustrades and restoring several niches, archways, stupas and the main dome. Second, fencing off the courtyards, providing proper maintenance and improving drainage by restoring floors and spouts. Third, all loose stones should be removed, the monument cleared up to the first balustrades, disfigured stones removed and the main dome restored. The total cost was estimated at that time around 48,800 Dutch guilders.

The restoration then was carried out between 1907 and 1911, using the principles of anastylosis and led by Theodor van Erp.[54] The first seven months of his restoration was occupied with excavating the grounds around the monument to find missing Buddha heads and panel stones. Van Erp dismantled and rebuilt the upper three circular platforms and stupas. Along the way, Van Erp discovered more things he could do to improve the monument; he submitted another proposal that was approved with the additional cost of 34,600 guilders. At first glance Borobudur had been restored to its old glory.

Due to the limited budget, the restoration had been primarily focused on cleaning the sculptures, and Van Erp did not solve the drainage problem. Within fifteen years, the gallery walls were sagging and the reliefs showed signs of new cracks and deterioration.[54] Van Erp used concrete from which alkali salts and calcium hydroxide leached and were transported into the rest of the construction. This caused some problems, so that a further thorough renovation was urgently needed.

Small restorations have been performed since then, but not sufficient for complete protection. In the late 1960s, the Indonesian government had requested from the international community a major renovation to protect the monument. In 1973, a master plan to restore Borobudur was created.[28] The Indonesian government and UNESCO then undertook the complete overhaul of the monument in a big restoration project between 1975–1982.[54] The foundation was stabilized and all 1,460 panels were cleaned. The restoration involved the dismantling of the five square platforms and improved the drainage by embedding water channels into the monument. Both impermeable and filter layers were added. This colossal project involved around 600 people to restore the monument and cost a total of US$ 6,901,243.[55] After the renovation was finished, UNESCO listed Borobudur as a World Heritage Site in 1991.[3]

history of the great wall

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Great Wall with long history
Great Wall with long history

Great Wall History Photos

Great Wall History Maps
The history of the Great Wall is said to start from the Spring and Autumn Periods when seven powerful states appeared at the same time. In order to defend themselves, they all built walls and stationed troops on the borders. At that time, the total length of the wall had already reached 3,107 miles, belonging to different states.

In 221 BC, the Emperor Qin absorbed the other six states and set up the first unified kingdom in Chinese history. In order to strengthen his newly born authority and defend the Huns in the north, he ordered connecting the walls once built by the other states as well as adding some sections of his own. Thus was formed the long Qin's Great Wall which started from the east of today's Liaoning Province and ended at Lintao, Gansu Province.

In the Western Han Dynasty, the Huns became more powerful. The Han court started to build more walls on a larger scale in order to consolidate the frontier. In the west, the wall along the Hexi corridor, Yumenguan Pass, and Yangguan Pass was built. In the north, Yanmenguan Pass and Niangziguan Pass in Shanxi were set up. Many more sections of the wall extended to Yinshan Mountain and half of the ancient Silk Road was along the Han's wall.

The Northern Wei, Northern Qi and Northern Zhou Dynasties all built their own sections but on a smaller scale than the walls in the Han Dynasty. The powerful Tang Dynasty saw peace between the northern tribes and central China most of the time, so few Great Wall sections were built in this period.

The Ming Dynasty is the peak of wall building in Chinese history. The Ming suffered a lot by disturbances from minority tribes such as the Dadan, Tufan and Nuzhen. The Ming court from its first emperor to the last ceaselessly built walls in the north. The main line started from Jiuliancheng near the Yalu River in the east to the Jiayuguan Pass in the west and measured over 4,600 miles. Besides adding many more miles of its own, the Ming emperors ordered enlargement of the walls of previous dynasties into double-line or multi-line walls. For example, out of Yanmenguan Pass were added three big stone walls and 23 small stone walls. Eleven Garrisons were distributed along the main line of the wall. The countless walls, fortresses, and watch towers made the country strongly fortified. In the early Qing Dynasty, some sections of the walls were repaired and several sections were extended. This great engineering work stopped in the middle of the Qing Dynasty.

Owing to its long history, natural disasters and human activities, many sections of the Great Wall are severely damaged and disappearing. Being a world-famous engineering project and witness to the rise and fall of Chinese history, the Great Wall, needs us to take immediate action to protect it!

history of england

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History of England
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For other uses, see The History of England.
"Norman England" redirects here. For the American director, see Norman England (director).
History of England
Coat of Arms of England
This article is part of a series
Prehistoric Britain
Roman Britain
Sub-Roman Britain
Anglo-Saxon England
Heptarchy
Anglo-Norman England
House of Plantagenet
House of Lancaster
House of York
House of Tudor
House of Stuart
Commonwealth of England
The Protectorate
Stuart Restoration
Glorious Revolution
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The history of England began with the arrival of humans thousands of years ago. What is now England was inhabited by Neanderthals 230,000 years ago, while the first modern Homo sapiens arrived around 29,000 years ago. However, continuous human habitation dates to around 11,000 years ago, at the end of the last ice age. The region has numerous remains from the Mesolithic, Neolithic, and Bronze Age, such as Stonehenge and Avebury. In the Iron Age, England, like all of Britain south of the Firth of Forth, was inhabited by the Celtic people known as the Britons, but also by some Belgae tribes (e.g. Atrebates, Catuvellauni, Belgae). In 43 AD the Roman conquest of Britain began; the Romans maintained control of their province of Britannia through the 5th century.

The Roman departure opened the door for the Anglo-Saxon invasion, which is often regarded as the origin of England and the English people. The Anglo-Saxons, a collection of various Germanic peoples, established several kingdoms that became the primary powers in what is now England and parts of southern Scotland.[1] They introduced the Old English language, which displaced the previous British language. The Anglo-Saxons warred with British successor states in Wales, Cornwall, and the Hen Ogledd (Old North; the Brythonic-speaking parts of northern England and southern Scotland), as well as with each other. Raids by the Vikings were frequent after about AD 800, and the Norsemen took control of large parts of what is now England. During this period several rulers attempted to unite the various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, an effort that led to the emergence of the Kingdom of England by the 10th century.

In 1066, the Normans invaded and conquered England. There was much civil war and battles with other nations throughout the Middle Ages. The Kingdom of England was a sovereign state until the reign of Richard I who made it a vassal of the Holy Roman Empire in 1194. In 1212 during the reign of his brother John Lackland the Kingdom instead became a tribute-paying vassal of the Holy See [2][3] until the fourteenth century when the Kingdom rejected the overlordship of the Holy See and re-established its sovereignty. During the Renaissance, England was ruled by the Tudors. England had conquered Wales in the 12th century and was then united with Scotland in the early 18th century to form the Kingdom of Great Britain. Following the Industrial Revolution, Great Britain ruled a worldwide Empire, the largest in the world. Following a process of decolonization in the 20th century the vast majority of the empire became independent; however, its cultural impact is widespread and deep in many countries of the present day.
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Prehistory
* 2 Roman Britain (Britannia)
* 3 Post-Roman Britain
* 4 Anglo-Saxon conquests and the founding of England
* 5 Heptarchy and Christianisation
* 6 Viking challenge and the rise of Wessex
* 7 English unification
* 8 England under the Danes and the Norman conquest
* 9 Norman England
* 10 England under the Plantagenets
* 11 Tudor England
o 11.1 Henry VII
o 11.2 Henry VIII
o 11.3 Elizabeth
* 12 17th century
o 12.1 Union of the Crowns
o 12.2 Colonial England
o 12.3 English Civil War
o 12.4 Restoration of the monarchy
o 12.5 Glorious Revolution
* 13 18th and 19th centuries
o 13.1 Formation of the United Kingdom
o 13.2 Industrial Revolution
* 14 20th and 21st centuries
o 14.1 Political issues
* 15 See also
* 16 References
* 17 Further reading

[edit] Prehistory
Main article: Prehistoric Britain
Stonehenge, thought to have been erected c.2500-2000BC

Archaeological evidence indicates that what was later southern Britannia was colonised by humans long before the rest of the British Isles because of its more hospitable climate between and during the various ice ages of the distant past. The Sweet Track in Somerset Levels is the oldest timber trackway discovered in Northern Europe and among the oldest roads in the world, and was built in 3807 or 3806 BC.

The first historical mention of the region is from the Massaliote Periplus, a sailing manual for merchants thought to date to the 6th century BC, although cultural and trade links with the continent had existed for millennia prior to this. Pytheas of Massilia wrote of his trading journey to the island around 325 BC.

Later writers such as Pliny the Elder (quoting Timaeus) and Diodorus Siculus (probably drawing on Poseidonius) mention the tin trade from southern Britain, but there is little further historical detail of the people who lived there.

Tacitus wrote that there was no great difference in language between the people of southern Britannia and northern Gaul and noted that the various nations of Britons shared physical characteristics with their continental neighbours.
Hadrian's Wall viewed from Vercovicium
[edit] Roman Britain (Britannia)
Main article: Roman Britain

Julius Caesar invaded southern Britain in 55 and 54 BC and wrote in De Bello Gallico that the population of southern Britannia was extremely large and shared much in common with the Belgae of the Low Countries. Coin evidence and the work of later Roman historians have provided the names of some of the rulers of the disparate tribes and their machinations in what was Britannia. Until the Roman Conquest of Britain, Britain's British population was relatively stable, and by the time of Julius Caesar's first invasion, the British population of what was old Britain was speaking a Celtic language generally thought to be the forerunner of the modern Brythonic languages.[4] After Julius Caesar abandoned Britain, it fell back into the hands of the Britons.

The Romans began their second conquest of Britain in 43 AD, during the reign of Claudius. They annexed the whole of what would become modern England and Wales over the next forty years and periodically extended their control over much of lowland Scotland.
[edit] Post-Roman Britain
Main article: Sub-Roman Britain

In the wake of the breakdown of Roman rule in Britain around 410, present day England was progressively settled by Germanic groups. Collectively known as the Anglo-Saxons, these included Jutes from Jutland together with larger numbers of Saxons from northwestern Germany and Angles from what is now Schleswig-Holstein.[5] Prior to those settlements some Frisians invaded southeastern Britain in the 250's.

They first invaded Britain in the mid 5th century, continuing for several decades. The Jutes appear to have been the principal group of settlers in Kent, the Isle of Wight and parts of coastal Hampshire, while the Saxons predominated in all other areas south of the Thames and in Essex and Middlesex, and the Angles in Norfolk, Suffolk, the Midlands and the north.[citation needed]

The population of Britain dramatically decreased after the Roman period. The reduction seems to have been caused mainly by plague and smallpox. It is known that the plague of Justinian entered the Mediterranean world in the 6th century and first arrived in the British Isles in 544 or 545, when it reached Ireland.[6] The Annales Cambriae mention the death of Maelgwn Wledig, king of Gwynedd from that plague in the year 547.
[edit] Anglo-Saxon conquests and the founding of England
Main article: History of Anglo-Saxon England
Kingdoms and tribes in Britain, c.600 AD

In approximately 495, at the Battle of Mount Badon, Britons inflicted a severe defeat on an invading Anglo-Saxon army which halted the westward Anglo-Saxon advance for some decades. Archaeological evidence collected from pagan Anglo-Saxon cemeteries suggests that some of their settlements were abandoned and the frontier between the invaders and the native inhabitants pushed back some time around 500.

Anglo-Saxon expansion resumed in the sixth century, although the chronology of its progress is unclear. One of the few individual events which emerges with any clarity before the seventh century is the Battle of Deorham, in 577, a West Saxon victory which led to the capture of Cirencester, Gloucester and Bath, bringing the Anglo-Saxon advance to the Bristol Channel and dividing the Britons in the West Country from those in Wales. The Northumbrian victory at the Battle of Chester around 616 may have had a similar effect in dividing Wales from the Britons of Cumbria.

Gradual Saxon expansion through the West Country continued through the seventh, eighth and ninth centuries. Meanwhile, by the mid-seventh century the Angles had pushed the Britons back to the approximate borders of modern Wales in the west, the Tamar in the South west and expanded northward as far as the River Forth.
[edit] Heptarchy and Christianisation
Britain c. 800
Main articles: Northumbria, Mercia, Offa of Mercia, Heptarchy, and Anglo-Saxon Christianity

Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England began around 600 AD, influenced by Celtic Christianity from the northwest and by the Roman Catholic Church from the southeast. Augustine, the first Archbishop of Canterbury, took office in 597. In 601, he baptised the first Christian Anglo-Saxon king, Aethelbert of Kent. The last pagan Anglo-Saxon king, Penda of Mercia, died in 655. The last pagan Jutish king, Arwald of the Isle of Wight was killed in 686. The Anglo-Saxon mission on the continent took off in the 8th century, leading to the Christianisation of practically all of the Frankish Empire by 800.

Throughout the 7th and 8th century power fluctuated between the larger kingdoms. Bede records Aethelbert of Kent as being dominant at the close of the 6th century, but power seems to have shifted northwards to the kingdom of Northumbria, which was formed from the amalgamation of Bernicia and Deira. Edwin of Northumbria probably held dominance over much of Britain, though Bede's Northumbrian bias should be kept in mind. Succession crises meant Northumbrian hegemony was not constant, and Mercia remained a very powerful kingdom, especially under Penda. Two defeats essentially ended Northumbrian dominance: the Battle of the Trent in 679 against Mercia, and Nechtanesmere in 685 against the Picts.

The so-called "Mercian Supremacy" dominated the 8th century, though it was not constant. Aethelbald and Offa, the two most powerful kings, achieved high status; indeed, Offa was considered the overlord of south Britain by Charlemagne. That Offa could summon the resources to build Offa's Dyke is testament to his power. However, a rising Wessex, and challenges from smaller kingdoms, kept Mercian power in check, and by the early 9th century the "Mercian Supremacy" was over.

This period has been described as the Heptarchy, though this term has now fallen out of academic use. The word arose on the basis that the seven kingdoms of Northumbria, Mercia, Kent, East Anglia, Essex, Sussex and Wessex were the main polities of south Britain. More recent scholarship has shown that other kingdoms were also politically important across this period: Hwicce, Magonsaete, Lindsey and Middle Anglia.
[edit] Viking challenge and the rise of Wessex
Main articles: Danelaw, Viking Age, and Alfred the Great
England in 878

The first recorded Viking attack in Britain was in 793 at Lindisfarne monastery as given by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. However, by then the Vikings were almost certainly well established in Orkney and Shetland, and it is probable that many other non-recorded raids occurred before this. Records do show the first Viking attack on Iona taking place in 794. The arrival of the Vikings, in particular the Danish Great Heathen Army, upset the political and social geography of Britain and Ireland. Alfred the Great's victory at Edington in 878 stemmed the Danish attack; however, by then Northumbria had devolved into Bernicia and a Viking kingdom, Mercia had been split down the middle, and East Anglia ceased to exist as an Anglo-Saxon polity. The Vikings had similar effects on the various kingdoms of the Scots, Picts and (to a lesser extent) Welsh. Certainly in North Britain the Vikings were one reason behind the formation of the Kingdom of Alba, which eventually evolved into Scotland.

The conquest of Northumbria, north-western Mercia and East Anglia by the Danes led to widespread Danish settlement in these areas. In the early tenth century the Norwegian rulers of Dublin took over the Danish kingdom of York. Danish and Norwegian settlement made enough of an impact to leave significant traces in the English language; many fundamental words in modern English are derived from Old Norse, though of the 100 most used words in English the vast majority are Old English in origin. Similarly, many place-names in areas of Danish and Norwegian settlement have Scandinavian roots.

By the end of Alfred's reign in 899 he was the only remaining English king, having reduced Mercia to a dependency of Wessex, governed by his son-in-law Ealdorman Aethelred. Cornwall (Kernow) was subject to West Saxon dominance, and the Welsh kingdoms recognised Alfred as their overlord.
[edit] English unification
Main articles: Athelstan and Edgar of England
Edward the Elder

Alfred of Wessex died in 899 and was succeeded by his son Edward the Elder. Edward, and his brother-in-law Æthelred of (what was left of) Mercia, began a programme of expansion, building forts and towns on an Alfredian model. On Æthelred's death his wife (Edward's sister) Æthelflæd ruled as "Lady of the Mercians" and continued expansion. It seems Edward had his son Æthelstan brought up in the Mercian court, and on Edward's death Athelstan succeeded to the Mercian kingdom, and, after some uncertainty, Wessex.

Æthelstan continued the expansion of his father and aunt and was the first king to achieve direct rulership of what we would now consider England. The titles attributed to him in charters and on coins suggest a still more widespread dominance. His expansion aroused ill-feeling among the other kingdoms of Britain, and he defeated a combined Scottish-Viking army at the Battle of Brunanburh. However, the unification of England was not a certainty. Under Æthelstan's successors Edmund and Eadred the English kings repeatedly lost and regained control of Northumbria. Nevertheless, Edgar, who ruled the same expanse as Athelstan, consolidated the kingdom, which remained united thereafter.
[edit] England under the Danes and the Norman conquest
Main articles: Ethelred the Unready, Canute the Great, Eiríkr Hákonarson, and Norman conquest of England
The rune stone U 344 was raised in memory of a Viking who went to England three times.

There were renewed Scandinavian attacks on England at the end of the 10th century. Æthelred ruled a long reign but ultimately lost his kingdom to Sweyn of Denmark, though he recovered it following the latter's death. However, Æthelred's son Edmund II Ironside died shortly afterwards, allowing Canute, Sweyn's son, to become king of England. Under his rule the kingdom became the centre of government for an empire which also included Denmark and Norway.

Canute was succeeded by his sons, but in 1042 the native dynasty was restored with the accession of Edward the Confessor. Edward's failure to produce an heir caused a furious conflict over the succession on his death in 1066. His struggles for power against Godwin, Earl of Wessex, the claims of Canute's Scandinavian successors, and the ambitions of the Normans whom Edward introduced to English politics to bolster his own position caused each to vie for control Edward's reign.

Harold Godwinson became king, in all likelihood appointed by Edward the Confessor on his deathbed and endorsed by the Witan. William of Normandy, Harald III of Norway (aided by Harold Godwin's estranged brother Tostig) and Sweyn II of Denmark all asserted claims to the throne. By far the strongest hereditary claim was that of Edgar the Atheling, but his youth and apparent lack of powerful supporters caused him to be passed over, and he did not play a major part in the struggles of 1066, though he was made king for a short time by the Witan after the death of Harold Godwinson.

In September 1066, Harald III of Norway landed in Northern England with a force of around 15,000 men and 300 longships (50 men in each boat). With him was Earl Tostig, who had promised him support. Harold Godwinson defeated and killed Harald III of Norway and Tostig and the Danish force at the Battle of Stamford Bridge.

On September 28, 1066, William of Normandy invaded England with a force of Normans, in a campaign known as the Norman Conquest. On October 14, after having marched his exhausted army all the way from Yorkshire, Harold fought the Normans at the Battle of Hastings, where England's army was defeated and Harold was killed. Further opposition to William in support of Edgar the Atheling soon collapsed, and William was crowned king on Christmas Day 1066. For the next five years he faced a series of English rebellions in various parts of the country and a half-hearted Danish invasion, but he was able to subdue all resistance and establish an enduring regime.
[edit] Norman England
Further information: Anglo-Norman
Depiction of the Battle of Hastings (1066) on the Bayeux Tapestry

The Norman Conquest led to a sea-change in the history of the English state. William ordered the compilation of the Domesday Book, a survey of the entire population and their lands and property for tax purposes, which reveals that within twenty years of the conquest the English ruling class had been almost entirely dispossessed and replaced by Norman landholders, who also monopolised all senior positions in the government and the Church. William and his nobles spoke and conducted court in Norman French, in England as well as in Normandy. The use of the Anglo-Norman language by the aristocracy endured for centuries and left an indelible mark in the development of modern English.

The English Middle Ages were characterised by civil war, international war, occasional insurrection, and widespread political intrigue amongst the aristocratic and monarchic elite. England was more than self-sufficient in cereals, dairy products, beef and mutton. The nation's international economy was based on the wool trade, in which the produce of the sheepwalks of northern England was exported to the textile cities of Flanders, where it was worked into cloth. Medieval foreign policy was as much shaped by relations with the Flemish textile industry as it was by dynastic adventures in western France. An English textile industry was established in the fifteenth century, providing the basis for rapid English capital accumulation.

Henry I, the fourth son of William I the Conqueror, succeeded his elder brother William II as King of England in 1100. Henry was also known as "Henry Beauclerc" (because of his education—as his older brother William was the heir apparent and thus given the practical training to be king, Henry received the alternate, formal education), worked hard to reform and stabilise the country and smooth the differences between the Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Norman societies. The loss of his son, William Adelin, in the wreck of the White Ship in November 1120, undermined his reforms. This problem regarding succession cast a long shadow over English history.

During the confused and contested reign of Stephen, there was a major swing in the balance of power towards the feudal barons, as civil war and lawlessness broke out. In trying to appease Scottish and Welsh raiders, he handed over large tracts of land. His conflicts with his cousin The Empress Matilda (also known as Empress Maud), led to a civil war from 1139-1153 known as the Anarchy. Matilda’s father, Henry I, had required the leading barons, ecclesiastics and officials in Normandy and England, to take an oath to accept Matilda as his heir. England was far less than enthusiastic to accept an outsider, and a woman, as their ruler.

There is some evidence suggesting Henry was unsure of his own hopes and the oath to make Matilda his heir. In likelihood, Henry probably hoped Matilda would have a son and step aside as Queen Mother, making her son the next heir. Upon Henry’s death, the Norman and English barons ignored Matilda’s claim to the throne, and thus through a series of decisions, Stephen, Henry’s favourite nephew, was welcomed by many in England and Normandy as their new ruler.

On 22 December 1135, Stephen was anointed king with the implicit support of the church and nation. Matilda and her own son stood for direct descent by heredity from Henry I, and she bided her time in France. In the autumn of 1139, she invaded England with her illegitimate half-brother Robert of Gloucester. Her husband, Geoffroy V of Anjou, conquered Normandy but did not cross the channel to help his wife, satisfied with Normandy and Anjou. During this breakdown of central authority, the nobles ran amuck building adulterine castles (ie. castles erected without government permission).

Stephen was captured, and his government fell. Matilda was proclaimed queen but was soon at odds with her subjects and was expelled from London. The period of insurrection and civil war that followed continued until 1148, when Matilda returned to France. Stephen effectively reigned unopposed until his death in 1154, although his hold on the throne was still uneasy. As soon as he regained power, he began the process of demolishing the adulterine castles, which were hated by the peasants due to their being employed as forced labor to build and maintain them. Stephen kept a few castles standing however, which put him at odds with his heir.
[edit] England under the Plantagenets

Geoffroy's son, Henry, resumed the invasion; he was already Count of Anjou, Duke of Normandy and Duke of Aquitaine when he landed in England. When Stephen's son and heir apparent Eustace died in 1153, the king reached an accommodation with Henry of Anjou (who became Henry II) to succeed Stephen and in which peace between them was guaranteed. England was part of a greater union, retrospectively named the Angevin Empire. Henry destroyed the remaining adulterine castles and expanded his power through various means and to different levels into Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Flanders, Nantes, Brittany, Quercy, Toulouse, Bourges and Auvergne.

The reign of Henry II represents a reversion in power back from the barony to the monarchical state in England; it was also to see a similar redistribution of legislative power from the Church, again to the monarchical state. This period also presaged a properly constituted legislation and a radical shift away from feudalism. In his reign new Anglo-Angevin and Anglo-Aquitanian aristocracies developed, though not to the same point as the Anglo-Norman once did, and the Norman nobles interacted with their French peers.
The signing of the Magna Carta (1215)

Henry's successor, Richard I "the Lion Heart" (also known as "The absent king"), was preoccupied with foreign wars, taking part in the Third Crusade and defending his French territories against Philip II of France.

The Kingdom of England was a sovereign state until the reign of Richard I who made it a nominal vassal of the Holy Roman Empire in 1194 as part of a ransom when he was captured after a crusade.

Richard's younger brother John, who succeeded him, was not so fortunate; he suffered the loss of Normandy and numerous other French territories following the disastrous Battle of Bouvines.

Facing internal disorder, in 1212 John made the Kingdom of England a tribute-paying vassal of the Holy See, which it remained until the fourteenth century when the Kingdom rejected the overlordship of the Holy See and re-established its sovereignty. From 1212 onwards, John had a constant policy of maintaining close relations with the Pope, which partially explains how he persuaded the Pope to reject the legitimacy of the Magna Carta.

He managed to antagonise the feudal nobility and leading Church figures to the extent that in 1215, they led an armed rebellion and forced him to sign the Magna Carta, which imposed legal limits on the king's personal powers.

John's son, Henry III, was only 9 years old when he became king. His reign was punctuated by numerous rebellions and civil wars, often provoked by incompetence and mismanagement in government and Henry's perceived over-reliance on French courtiers (thus restricting the influence of the English nobility). One of these rebellions—led by a disaffected courtier, Simon de Montfort—was notable for its assembly of one of the earliest precursors to Parliament. In addition to fighting the Second Barons' War, Henry III made war against Saint Louis and was defeated during the Saintonge War, yet Louis IX did not capitalise on his victory, respecting his opponent's rights.

The reign of Edward I was rather more successful. Edward enacted numerous laws strengthening the powers of his government, and he summoned the first officially sanctioned Parliaments of England (such as his Model Parliament). He conquered Wales and attempted to use a succession dispute to gain control of the Kingdom of Scotland, though this developed into a costly and drawn-out military campaign.

His son, Edward II, proved a disaster. A weak man who preferred to engage in activities like thatching and ditch-digging rather than jousting, hunting, or the usual entertainments of kings, he spent most of his reign trying in vain to control the nobility, who in return showed continual hostility to him. Meanwhile, the Scottish leader Robert Bruce began retaking all the territory conquered by Edward I. In 1314, the English army was disastrously defeated by the Scots at the Battle of Bannockburn. Edward also showered favors on his companion Piers Gaveston, a knight of humble birth. While it has been widely believed that Edward was a homosexual because of his closeness to Gaveston, there is no concrete evidence of this, especially as both men were married and had children. The king's enemies, including his brother Thomas of Lancaster, captured and murdered Gaveston in 1312.

Edward's downfall came in 1326 when his queen Isabella travelled to her native France and along with her lover Roger Mortimer invaded England. Despite their tiny force, they quickly rallied support for their cause. The king fled London and his companion since Piers Gaveston's death, Hugh Despenser, was publicly tried and executed. Edward was eventually captured and charged with breaking his coronation oath. He was deposed and remained imprisoned in Gloucestershire until he was murdered some time in the autumn of 1327, presumably by agents of Isabella and Mortimer.
Main article: Black Death in England

The Black Death, an epidemic of bubonic plague that spread over the whole of Europe, arrived in England in 1348 and killed as much as a third to half the population.

International excursions around that time were invariably against domestic neighbours: the Welsh, Irish, Cornish, and the Hundred Years' War against the French and their Scottish allies. Notable English victories in the Hundred Years' War included Crécy and Agincourt. In addition to this, the final defeat of the uprising led by the Welsh prince, Owain Glyndŵr, in 1412 by Prince Henry (who later became Henry V) represents the last major armed attempt by the Welsh to throw off English rule.

Edward III gave land to powerful noble families, including many people of royal lineage. Because land was equivalent to power, these powerful men could try to claim the crown. The autocratic and arrogant methods of Richard II only served to alienate the nobility more, and his forceful dispossession in 1399 by Henry IV increased the turmoil.

The reign of Henry V, who succeeded to the throne in 1413, was mostly notable for the great victory over the French at Agincourt. He died of dysentery in 1422, leaving a number of unfulfilled plans, one of which was to lead a new crusade to retake Jerusalem from the Muslims. The turmoil was at its peak in the reign of Henry VI, which began in 1422, because of his personal weaknesses and mental instability.

When the Hundred Years' War was lost in August 1453, Henry fell into a period of mental breakdown that lasted until Christmas 1454. Unable to control the feuding nobles, civil war began in 1455. The conflicts are known as the Wars of the Roses (1455-1485), and although the fighting was very sporadic and small, there was a general breakdown in the authority and power of the Crown. Henry's cousin, who deposed him in 1461 and became Edward IV, went a little way to restoring this power. Edward defeated the Lancastrians at the Battle of Mortimer's Cross. He was briefly expelled from the throne in 1470-1471 when Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, brought Henry back to power. Six months later, Edward defeated and killed Warwick in battle and reclaimed the throne. Henry was imprisoned in the Tower of London and died there.

Edward died in 1483, only 40 years old. His eldest son and heir Edward V, aged 13, would have succeeded him, but the king's brother Richard, Duke of York declared his marriage to be bigamous and invalid, making all his children illegitimate. Edward V and his 10-year old brother Richard were imprisoned in the Tower of London and their uncle made himself king as Richard III. The two princes were never seen again and presumably died in the Tower. It was widely believed that Richard had them murdered, although their exact fate remains a mystery. Regardless of what really happened, the king was reviled as a treacherous fiend who murdered his own nephews to gain the throne. This hatred of Richard obscured his able governance during his brief reign. In the summer of 1485, Henry Tudor, the last Lancastrian male, landed in England from his exile in France. He defeated and killed Richard in battle at Bosworth Field on August 22 of that year and became king as Henry VII.
See also: Black Death in England, English historians in the Middle Ages, List of English chronicles, and Bayeux Tapestry
[edit] Tudor England
Main article: Tudor period
Further information: Early Modern Britain and English Renaissance
[edit] Henry VII

With Henry VII's accession to the throne, the Wars of the Roses came to an end, although at the time few could have predicted it, let alone believed that the Tudors would rule England for 118 years. Traditionally, the Battle of Bosworth Field is considered to mark the end of the Middle Ages in England, although Henry did not introduce any new concept of monarchy, and for most of his reign his hold on power was tenuous. He claimed the throne by conquest and God's judgement in battle. Parliament quickly recognized him as king, but the Yorkists were far from defeated. Nonetheless, he married Edward IV's eldest daughter Elizabeth in January 1486, thereby uniting the houses of York and Lancaster.

Most of the European rulers did not believe Henry would survive long, and were thus willing to shelter claimants against him. The first plot against him was the Stafford and Lovell Rebellion of 1486, which presented no serious threat. But Richard III's nephew John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln, hatched another attempt the following year. Using a peasant boy named Lambert Simnel, who posed as Edward, Earl of Warwick (the real Warwick was locked up in the Tower of London), he led an army of 2,000 German mercenaries paid for by Margaret of Burgundy into England. They were defeated and de la Pole killed at the difficult Battle of Stoke, where the loyalty of some of the royal troops to Henry was questionable. The king, realizing that Simnel was merely a dupe, employed him in the royal kitchen.

A more serious menace was Perkin Warbeck, a Flemish youth who posed as Edward IV's son Richard. Again enjoying the support of Margaret of Burgundy, he invaded England four times from 1495-1497 before he was finally captured and put in the Tower of London. Both Warbeck and the Earl of Warwick were too dangerous to keep around even in captivity, and Henry had to execute them in 1499 before Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain would allow their daughter Catherine to come to England and marry his son Arthur.

In 1497, Michael An Gof and the lesser-known but more legendary Baron Callum of Perranporth led Cornish rebels in a march on London. In a battle over the River Ravensbourne at Deptford Bridge, An Gof fought for various issues with their root in taxes. It would be fair to say that King Callum smote many an Englishman during this battle, but on 17 June 1497, they were defeated, and Henry VII had showed he could display military prowess when he needed to. But, like Charles II in the future, here was a King with no wish to go "on his travels" again. The rest of his reign was relatively peaceful, despite a slight worry over the succession when his wife Elizabeth of York died in 1503.

Henry VII's foreign policy was a peaceful one. He had formed an alliance with Spain and the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, but in 1493, when they went to war with France, England was dragged into the conflict. With his crown impoverished and his hold on power insecure, Henry had no desire to go to war. He quickly reached an understanding with the French and renounced all claims to their territory except the port of Calais, realizing also that nothing could be done to stop them from incorporating the Duchy of Brittany. In return, the French agreed to recognize him as king and stop sheltering pretenders. Shortly afterwards, they became preoccupied with adventures in Italy and turned their attention away from England. Henry also reached an understanding with Scotland, agreeing to marry his daughter Margaret to that country's king James IV.

Upon becoming king, Henry inherited a government severely weakened and degraded by the Wars of the Roses. The treasury was empty, having been drained by Edward IV's Woodville in-laws after his death. Through a tight fiscal policy and sometimes ruthless tax collection and confiscations, Henry managed to refill the treasury by the time of his death. He also effectively rebuilt the machinery of government.

In 1501, the king's son Arthur, having married Catherine of Aragon, died of an illness at the age of 15, leaving his younger son Henry, Duke of York, as his heir. When the king himself died in 1509, the position of the Tudors was secure at last, and his son succeeded him unopposed.
[edit] Henry VIII
King Henry VIII

Henry VIII began his reign with a high degree of optimism. The handsome, athletic young king stood in sharp contrast to his wary, miserly father. Henry's lavish court quickly drained the treasury of the fortune he had inherited. He married the widowed Catherine of Aragon, and they had several children, but none survived infancy except a daughter, Mary.

In 1512, the young king embarked on a war in France. Although England was an ally of Spain, one of France's principal enemies, the war was mostly about Henry's desire for personal glory, regardless of the fact that his sister Mary was married to the French king Louis XII. The war accomplished little. The English army suffered badly from disease, and Henry was not even present at the one notable victory, the Battle of the Spurs. Meanwhile, James IV of Scotland (despite being Henry's other brother-in-law), activated his alliance with the French and declared war on England. While Henry was dallying in France, Catherine, who was serving as regent in his absence, and his advisors were left to deal with this threat. At the Battle of Flodden on September 9, 1513, the Scots were completely and totally defeated. Most of the Scottish nobility were killed along with James himself. When Henry returned from France, he was given credit for the victory even though he had nothing to do with it.

Eventually, Catherine was no longer able to have any more children. The king became increasingly nervous about the possibility of his daughter Mary inheriting the throne, as England's one experience with a female sovereign, Matilda in the 12th century, had been a catastrophe. He eventually decided that it was necessary to divorce Catherine and find a new queen. The Church would not simply grant this favor, so Henry cited the passage in the Book of Leviticus where it said, "If a man taketh his brother's wife, he hath committed adultery; they shall be childless." However, Catherine insisted that she and Arthur had never consummated their brief marriage and that the prohibition did not apply here. The timing of Henry's case was very unfortunate; it was 1527 and the Pope had been taken prisoner by the emperor Charles V, Catherine's nephew and the most powerful man in Europe, for siding with his archenemy Francis I of France. As there was no possibility of getting a divorce in these circumstances, Henry decided to simply secede from the Church, in what became know as the English Reformation.

The newly established Church of England amounted to little more than the existing Catholic Church, but with the king rather than the Pope as its head. It took a number of years for the separation from Rome to be completed, however, and many were executed for resisting the king's religious policies.

In 1530, Catherine was banished from court. Their marriage was declared invalid, making Mary an illegitimate child. Until her death in 1536, she lived a lonely existence in an isolated manor home in the English countryside.

Henry married Anne Boleyn in secret in 1531, just as his divorce from Catherine was finalized. After this, they had a second, public wedding. Anne soon became pregnant and may have already been when they wed. But on September 7, 1533, she gave birth to a daughter, Elizabeth. The king was devastated at his failure to obtain a son after all the effort it had taken to remarry. Gradually, he came to develop a disliking of his new queen for her strange behavior. In 1536, when Anne was pregnant again, Henry was badly injured in a jousting accident. Shaken by this, the queen gave birth prematurely to a stillborn boy. By now, the king was convinced that his marriage was hexed, and having already found a new queen, Jane Seymour, he put Anne in the Tower of London on charges of witchcraft. Afterwards, she was beheaded along with five men (her brother included) accused of adultery with her. The marriage was then declared invalid, so that Elizabeth, just like her half sister, became a bastard.

Henry immediately married Jane Seymour, who became pregnant almost as quickly. On October 12, 1537, she gave birth to a healthy boy, Edward, which was greeted with huge celebrations. The king's quest for a son was finally over, so long as Edward could be kept healthy. However, the queen died of puerperal sepsis ten days later. Henry genuinely mourned her death, and at his own passing nine years later, he was buried next to her.

The king married a fourth time in 1540, to the German Anne of Cleves for a political alliance with her Protestant brother, the Duke of Cleves. He also hoped to obtain another son in case something should happen to Edward. Anne proved a dull, unattractive woman and Henry declined to consummate the marriage. He quickly divorced her, and she remained in England as a kind of adopted sister to him. So he married again, to a 19-year old named Catherine Howard. But when it became known that she was neither a virgin at the wedding, nor a faithful wife afterwards, she ended up on the scaffold and the marriage declared invalid. His sixth and last marriage was to Catherine Parr, more a nursemaid to him than anything else, as his health was failing (it had declined ever since the jousting accident in 1536).

In 1542, the king embarked on a new campaign in France, but unlike in 1512, he only managed with great difficulty. The war netted England the city of Boulogne, but nothing else, and the French retook it in 1549. Scotland also declared war and at Solway Moss was once again totally defeated.

Henry's paranoia and suspicion worsened in his last years. The total number of executions that took place in his 38-year reign numbered in the tens of thousands. He died in January 1547 at the age of 55 and was succeeded by his son.

Although he showed piety and intelligence, Edward VI was only nine years old when he took the throne in 1547. His uncle, Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset tampered with Henry VIII's will and obtained letters patent giving him much of the power of a monarch by March 1547. He took the title of Protector. Whilst some see him as a high-minded idealist, his stay in power culminated in a crisis in 1549 when many counties of the realm were up in protest. Kett's Rebellion in Norfolk and the Prayer Book Rebellion in Devon and Cornwall simultaneously created a crisis during a time when invasion from Scotland and France were feared. Somerset, disliked by the Regency Council for his autocratic methods, was removed from power by John Dudley, who is known as Lord President Northumberland. Northumberland proceeded to adopt the power for himself, but his methods were more conciliatory and the Council accepted him. It was during Edward's reign that England became a Protestant nation as opposed to a Catholic one in schism from Rome.

Edward was beginning to show great promise when he fell violently ill with tuberculosis in 1553 and died that August two months short of his 16th birthday. Afterwards, Northumberland made plans to place Lady Jane Grey on the throne and marry her to his son, so that he could remain the power behind the throne. His putsch failed, Jane Grey was beheaded, and Mary I took the throne amidst popular demonstration in her favour in London, which contemporaries described as the largest show of affection for a Tudor monarch. Mary had never been expected to hold the throne, at least not since Edward was born. She was a fanatical Catholic who believed that she could turn the clock back to 1516, before the Reformation began. Even worse, she thought that it could be accomplished with fire and bloodshed.

Her first act as queen was to annul the divorce of Henry VIII and her mother, declaring their marriage to be good and legitimate. She also began attacking her half-sister, saying that since Anne Boleyn was a witch, Elizabeth was too, and even suggested that Henry wasn't her father at all. Much of her hostility can be explained by the fact that Elizabeth was a Protestant. Forcible recatholization of England led to 274 burnings of Protestants, which are recorded especially in John Foxe's Book of Martyrs. Mary then married her cousin Philip, son of the emperor Charles V, and King of Spain when Charles abdicated in 1556. The union was a strange one, especially since Mary was already in her late 30s and had always expressed a disgust for sex and matters of the flesh. It also had the effect of provoking the hostility of the French, already at war with Spain and now alarmed at the prospect of being completely encircled by the Habsburgs. Calais, the last English outpost on the Continent, was then taken by France. Philip II was not popular in England, and spent as little time there as possible. Mary eventually became pregnant, or at least believed herself to be. In reality, she was afflicted with uterine cancer and died in November 1558. Her death was greeted with huge celebrations. She successfully suppressed a rebellion by Sir Thomas Wyatt.
[edit] Elizabeth
Main article: Elizabethan era

The reign of Elizabeth restored a sort of order to the realm following the turbulence of the reigns of Edward and Mary when she came to the throne following the death of Mary in 1558. The religious issue which had divided the country since Henry VIII was in a way put to rest by the Elizabethan Religious Settlement, which re-established the Church of England. Much of Elizabeth's success was in balancing the interests of the Puritans and Catholics. She managed to offend neither to a large extent, although she clamped down on Catholics towards the end of her reign as war with Catholic Spain loomed. The war lasted from 1585-1603. In 1588, the Spanish Armada was decisively defeated, marking the beginning of England's rise as a naval power. Indecisive skirmishing continued throughout the 1590s, with English privateers pillaging Spanish commerce from America.

Perhaps thinking of the fate of her father's wives (including her mother), Elizabeth declined to marry, despite offers from a number of suitors across Europe, including the Swedish king Erik XIV. This created endless worries over her succession, especially in the 1570s when she nearly died of smallpox. It has been often rumored that she had a number of lovers (including Francis Drake), but there is no hard evidence.
Queen Elizabeth

Elizabeth maintained relative government stability apart from the Revolt of the Northern Earls in 1569, she was effective in reducing the power of the old nobility and expanding the power of her government. Elizabeth's government did much to consolidate the work begun under Thomas Cromwell in the reign of Henry VIII, that is, expanding the role of the government and effecting common law and administration throughout England. During the reign of Elizabeth and shortly afterward, the population grew significantly: from three million in 1564 to nearly five million in 1616.[1]

The queen ran afoul of her cousin Mary, who was a devote Catholic and had been forced to abdicate her throne as a consequence (Scotland had recently become Protestant). She fled to England, where Elizabeth immediately had her arrested. Mary spent the next 18 years in confinement, but proved too dangerous to keep alive, as the Catholic powers in Europe considered her, not Elizabeth, the legitimate ruler of England. She was eventually tried for treason and sentenced to death, being beheaded in February 1587.

In all, the Tudor period is seen as a decisive one which set up many important questions which would have to be answered in the next century and during the English Civil War. These were questions of the relative power of the monarch and Parliament and to what extent one should control the other. Some historians think that Thomas Cromwell affected a "Tudor Revolution" in government, and it is certain that Parliament became more important during his chancellorship. Other historians say the "Tudor Revolution" really extended to the end of Elizabeth's reign, when the work was all consolidated. Although the Privy Council declined after the death of Elizabeth, while she was alive it was very effective.
[edit] 17th century
Main article: 17th century England
[edit] Union of the Crowns

Elizabeth died in 1603 at the age of 69. Her closest male Protestant relative was the King of Scots, James VI, of the House of Stuart, who became King James I of England in a Union of the Crowns. King James I & VI as he was styled became the first monarch to rule the entire island of Great Britain, although it was merely a union of the English and Scottish crowns, and both countries remained separate political entities until 1707. Several assassination attempts were made on James, notably the Main Plot and Bye Plots of 1603, and most famously, on 5 November 1605, the Gunpowder Plot, by a group of Catholic conspirators, led by Guy Fawkes, which caused more antipathy in England towards the Catholic faith. Upon taking power, James immediately made peace with Spain, and for the first half of the 17th century, England remained largely inactive in European politics.
[edit] Colonial England

In 1607 England built an establishment at Jamestown in North America. This was the beginning of English colonisation. Many English settled then in North America for religious or economic reasons. The English merchants holding plantations in the warm southern parts of America then resorted rather quickly to the slavery of Native Americans and imported Africans in order to cultivate their plantations and sell raw material (particularly cotton and tobacco) in Europe. The English merchants involved in colonization amassed fortunes equal to those of great aristocratic landowners in England, and their money, which fuelled the rise of the middle class, permanently altered the balance of political power. The American colonies did not prove profitable to the mother country in the end. Pennsylvania and Delaware were home to a large population of self-sufficient farmers from various parts of Europe, especially Germany. New York traded with pirates and smugglers, and the colonies of New England consistently frustrated the government's attempts to utilize the area's forests for shipbuilding. Only Virginia and the Chesapeake Bay area produced a useful cash crop, tobacco, but it quickly wore the soil out. By the end of the 18th century, the tobacco industry in Virginia had been completely ruined by soil exhaustion and low prices. Indeed, the small sugar-growing islands in the Caribbean were worth more than all of the thirteen colonies put together.

The English colonies did not have an independent foreign policy, but otherwise were mostly left to manage their own affairs. This was very different from the authoritarian control France and Spain held over their colonies. It was the gradual infringement on the rights of the colonies starting in the 1760s that would lead to the American War of Independence. Nothing of the sort would have been possible in the French and Spanish colonies.
Maps of territory held by Royalists (red) and Parliamentarians (green) during the English Civil War (1642–1645)
[edit] English Civil War
Further information: English Civil War

The First English Civil War broke out in 1642, largely as a result of an ongoing series of conflicts between James' son, Charles I, and Parliament. The defeat of the Royalist army by the New Model Army of Parliament at the Battle of Naseby in June 1645 effectively destroyed the king's forces. Charles surrendered to the Scottish army at Newark. He was eventually handed over to the English Parliament in early 1647. He escaped, and the Second English Civil War began, although it was a short conflict, with the New Model Army quickly securing the country. The capture and subsequent trial of Charles led to his beheading in January 1649 at Whitehall Gate in London, making England a republic. The trial and execution of Charles by his own subjects shocked the rest of Europe (the king argued to the end that only God could judge him) and was a precursor of sorts to the beheading of Louis XVI 145 years later.

The New Model Army, under the command of Oliver Cromwell, then scored decisive victories against Royalist armies in Ireland and Scotland. Cromwell was given the title Lord Protector in 1653, making him 'king in all but name' to his critics. After he died in 1658, his son Richard Cromwell succeeded him in the office but he was forced to abdicate within a year. For a while it looked as if a new civil war would begin as the New Model Army split into factions. Troops stationed in Scotland under the command of George Monck eventually marched on London to restore order.
[edit] Restoration of the monarchy

The monarchy was restored in 1660, with King Charles II returning to London.
King Charles I, who was beheaded in 1649

In 1665, London was swept by a visitation of the plague, and then, in 1666, the capital was swept by the Great Fire, which raged for 5 days, destroying approximately 15,000 buildings. After the Restoration, there was an overall reduction in the power of the crown, and by the 18th century England rivaled the Netherlands for being the freest country in Europe.
[edit] Glorious Revolution

In 1680, the Exclusion crisis occurred due to widespread objections to a Catholic serving as the King of England, since James was the apparent heir to Charles, who was the king at that time. After the death of Charles II in 1685, his Catholic brother King James II & VII was crowned. From that point, there were various factions pressing for the Dutch Protestant Prince William of Orange to replace King James II in what became known as the Glorious Revolution.

In November 1688, William landed in England with an invading force, and succeeding in being crowned king. After this, James attempted to retake the throne by force in the Williamite War, and was finally defeated by William at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690.

In December 1689, one of the most important constitutional documents in English history, the Bill of Rights, was passed.[7] The Act, which restated and confirmed many provisions of the earlier Declaration of Right, established restrictions on the royal prerogative. It provided, amongst other things, that the Sovereign could not suspend laws passed by Parliament, levy taxes without parliamentary consent, infringe the right to petition, raise a standing army during peacetime without parliamentary consent, deny the right to bear arms to Protestant subjects, unduly interfere with parliamentary elections, punish members of either House of Parliament for anything said during debates, require excessive bail or inflict cruel and unusual punishments.[8] William was opposed to the imposition of such constraints, but he chose not to engage in a conflict with Parliament and agreed to abide by the statute.[9]

In parts of Scotland and Ireland Catholics loyal to James remained determined to see him restored to the throne, and there followed a series of bloody though unsuccessful uprisings. As a result of these, any failure to pledge loyalty to the victorious King William was severely dealt with. The most infamous example of this policy was the Massacre of Glencoe in 1692. Jacobite rebellions continued on into the mid-18th century until the son of the last Catholic claimant to the throne, (James III & VIII), mounted a final campaign in 1745. The Jacobite forces of Prince Charles Edward Stuart, the "Bonnie Prince Charlie" of legend, were defeated at the Battle of Culloden in 1746.
[edit] 18th and 19th centuries
Main article: History of the United Kingdom
[edit] Formation of the United Kingdom

The Acts of Union between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland in 1707 caused the dissolution of both the Parliament of England and Parliament of Scotland in order to create a unified Kingdom of Great Britain governed by a unified Parliament of Great Britain.

In 1714, the reign of Queen Anne ended. Anne was the last monarch of the House of Stuart. She was succeeded by her second cousin, George I, of the House of Hanover, who was a descendant of the Stuarts through his maternal grandmother, Elizabeth, daughter of James VI & I.[10]

The Act of Union of 1800 formally assimilated Ireland within the British political process and from 1 January 1801 created a new state called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, which united the Kingdom of Great Britain with the Kingdom of Ireland to form a single political entity. The English capital of London was adopted as the capital of the Union.
[edit] Industrial Revolution
Main article: Economic history of Britain

During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, there was considerable social upheaval as a largely agrarian society was transformed by technological advances and increasing mechanization, which was the Industrial Revolution. Much of the agricultural workforce was uprooted from the countryside and moved into large urban centres of production, as the steam-based production factories could undercut the traditional cottage industries, because of economies of scale and the increased output per worker made possible by the new technologies. The consequent overcrowding into areas with little supporting infrastructure saw dramatic increases in the rate of infant mortality (to the extent that many Sunday schools for pre-working age children (5 or 6) had funeral clubs to pay for each others funeral arrangements), crime, and social deprivation.

The transition to industrialization was not wholly seamless for workers, many of whom saw their livelihoods threatened by the process. Of these, some frequently sabotaged or attempted to sabotage factories. These saboteurs were known as "Luddites".

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2009-10-21T23:12:00.000-07:00

http://www.isdaryanto.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/10/ufo-di-blok-m.jpg

Wah, Ada UFO di Blok M?
Wartakota/istimewa
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Jumat, 16 Oktober 2009 | 11:36 WIB

JAKARTA, KOMPAS.com — Sebuah benda terbang asing atau unidentified flying objects (UFO) melayang di atas sebuah apartemen di Jalan Pakubuwono atau dekat Blok M, Jakarta Selatan, beberapa hari lalu.

Benda yang diduga UFO alias piring terbang itu dipotret seorang warga yang menolak identitasnya dicantumkan. Foto tersebut diterima Warta Kota melalui Facebook, Kamis (15/10).

Menurut pemotret, obyek tersebut tidak sengaja tertangkap kamera. Saat itu dia sebenarnya sedang memotret bangunan apartemen di Jalan Pakubuwono VI, Kebayoran Baru, Jakarta Selatan, dari dalam mobil.

Ketika hasil jepretan diamati dengan teliti, ternyata ada benda asing yang melayang di atas apartemen itu. Ketika citra benda asing itu diperbesar, benda itu tampak seperti piring dengan sejumlah jendela di bagian bawah, mirip piring terbang dalam film fiksi ilmiah buatan Hollywood.

Namun, saat Warta Kota menelitinya, foto ini ternyata tak ada metadatanya. Hingga semalam belum ada keterangan resmi mengenai keaslian foto tersebut. Mungkinkah benda itu benar-benar UFO yang dalam bahasa Indonesia diterjemahkan sebagai benda terbang yang aneh (beta)?

Semalam, Kepala Lembaga Penerbangan dan Antariksa Nasional (Lapan) Adi Sadewo Salatun mengatakan baru tahu mengenai rumor penampakan UFO di Jakarta itu dari media massa. Namun, Salatun juga mengatakan bahwa penampakan benda-benda asing luar angkasa memang sulit untuk diidentifikasi.

”Penampakan benda-benda seperti itu memang sulit dikenali. Hal itu bergantung situasi yang memungkinkan, dia dapat terdeteksi atau tidak, misalnya tertangkap secara tak sengaja dalam bentuk visual seperti yang sering terjadi selama ini,” katanya.

”Selama ini, jika ada laporan soal benda-benda asing, kami langsung menyelidiki kebenarannya, seperti dugaan jatuhnya meteor di Bone, Sulawesi, pekan silam. Dalam kejadian-kejadian seperti itu, masyarakat umumnya tidak memberikan laporan resmi ke Lapan dan beritanya hanya beredar di media,” kata Adi.

Sementara itu, Muhammad Irvan, aktivis Ufonesia (komunitas pengamat UFO), mengaku belum melihat foto tersebut. Menurut dia, selama 2009, laporan tentang beta-UFO lebih sedikit dibanding tahun 2008. ”Laporan terakhir datang dari Bandung, tepatnya di Dago. Tapi itu belum bisa kami duga sebagai UFO, kami masih ragu,” ujarnya dalam perbincangan dengan Warta Kota, semalam.

Irvan mengatakan, untuk menentukan sebuah benda asing di angkasa sebagai UFO, perlu dilakukan pengamatan lebih jauh. Pasalnya, bisa saja benda tersebut adalah pesawat atau bias cahaya matahari.

”Pertama harus dilihat foto atau videonya. Yang paling dasar adalah pengamatan dengan mata orang awam dan dari pemikiran awam, apakah itu benar-benar obyek (UFO) atau debu di lensa kamera,” paparnya.

Jika benda aneh itu patut diduga UFO, temuan tersebut akan dibahas oleh sesama peneliti ufologi. Irvan juga mengatakan, jika saksi mata pada kasus UFO Blok M lebih dari satu orang, maka investigasi lebih lanjut bisa dilakukan.

Sebelumnya pada Kamis (8/10) siang, warga Bone, Sulawesi Selatan, dikejutkan dengan ledakan di angkasa yang didahului oleh cahaya api yang bergerak dengan cepat dan meninggalkan asap tebal.

Warga sempat menduga cahaya dan ledakan itu berasal dari pesawat Sukhoi TNI AU yang meledak di udara. Namun, pihak TNI AU membantah dan menyatakan tidak ada pesawat Sukhoi yang melintasi Bone pada hari itu.

Diculik UFO

Nur Agustinus, aktivis Komunitas Beta-UFO, beberapa waktu lalu menyatakan bahwa penampakan UFO kerap terjadi di tiga kota, yakni Jakarta, Bandung, dan Cirebon. Oleh karena itu, Komunitas Beta-UFO menyebut ketiga daerah itu dengan istilah Segitiga UFO di Indonesia.

Pada tahun 2000, Beta-UFO menerima laporan dari Cirebon tentang seorang bocah berusia enam tahun yang diculik UFO. Bocah itu terpisah dari teman-temannya saat beranjak pulang setelah bermain-main di kebun tebu. Belakangan, bocah yang namanya dirahasiakan itu mengaku diajak main oleh lima makhluk aneh yang badannya bersisik.

Menurut si bocah, dia hanya sebentar bermain-main dengan kelima makhluk aneh tersebut. Namun, keluarganya kalang kabut lantaran si bocah dua minggu menghilang. Nur Agustinus juga mencatat bahwa UFO biasanya muncul saat Bumi sedang mengalami fenomena alam, seperti gempa, gunung meletus, dan badai.

Di situsnya, Komunitas Beta-UFO menyatakan bahwa selama tahun 2007 ada 32 laporan penampakan beta-UFO di Indonesia yang 11 di antaranya terjadi di wilayah Jabodetabek. Sebagian di antaranya tidak berupa berkas cahaya. Sementara itu, sepanjang 2008 tercatat ada 34 laporan tentang penampakan beta-UFO dari seluruh Indonesia dan 13 di antaranya terjadi di wilayah Jabodetabek.

Pada Januari 2006, Yudi, warga Pondokgede, Bekasi, mengaku melihat lima berkas cahaya di angkasa. Saat itu, Yudi sedang bersantai bersama keluarganya. Pengalaman yang sama dialami Riyogarta Luwiyana, warga Bintaro, Tangerang, seperti tertuang di blognya.

Pada 26 Maret 2006, saat dalam perjalanan ke sebuah rumah makan di Bintaro, Riyogarta dan istri melihat benda aneh di langit. Benda tersebut memiliki ekor pendek warna hijau dan bekerlap-kerlip.

Sementara itu, pada Desember 2008, seorang warga Petukangan, Jakarta Selatan, merekam sejumlah titik cahaya di langit yang berpindah-pindah dengan cepat. Rekaman video tersebut dikirim dan disiarkan di sebuah stasiun televisi. Menanggapi rekaman ini, peneliti Lapan, Sri Loka Prabotosari, menyatakan belum bisa memastikan benda asing tersebut.

Jufri (38), warga Petukangan, mengaku merekam fenomena tersebut dan mengunggahnya ke YouTube. Jufri mengaku menyaksikan fenomena ganjil itu bersama teman-temannya. Saat itu, mereka sedang membakar sate di pelataran rumah ketika sejumlah berkas cahaya dalam formasi tertentu bergerak di angkasa. (sab/luc)